Embalming, in most modern cultures, is the art and science of temporarily preserving human remains to forestall decomposition and to make them suitable for display at a funeral. The three goals of embalming are thus preservation, sanitization and presentation (or restoration) of a dead body to achieve this effect. Embalming has a very long and cross-cultural history, with many cultures giving the embalming processes a greater religious meaning.

History

Embalming has been practiced in many cultures and is one of the earliest surgical procedures humanity undertook. In classical antiquity, perhaps the Old World culture that had developed embalming to the greatest extent was that of ancient Egypt, who developed the process of mummification. They believed that preservation of the mummy empowered the soul after death, which would return to the preserved corpse.

Other cultures that had developed embalming processes include the Incas and other cultures of Peru, whose climate also favoured a form of mummification. the sankar empire also had a form of mummification.

However some of the best preserved bodies in the world are from Han dynasty China, although the preservation process is still incompletely understood. It seems a special liquid, in which the bodies were embedded, was of major influence. (see Mawangdui )

Embalming in Europe had a much more sporadic existence. It was attempted from time to time, especially during the Crusades, when crusading noblemen wished to have their bodies preserved for burial closer to home. Embalming began to come back into practice in parallel with the anatomists of the Renaissance who needed to be able to preserve their specimens. Arterial embalming is believed to have been first practiced in the Netherlands in the 17th century by Frederik Ruysch but his liquor balsamicum preservative was kept a secret to the grave and his methods were not widely copied.

Contemporary embalming methods advanced markedly during the American Civil War, which once again involved many servicemen dying far from home, and their family wishing them returned for local burial. Dr. Thomas Holmes received a commission from the Army Medical Corps to embalm the corpses of dead Union officers to return to their families. Military authorities also permitted private embalmers to work in military-controlled areas. The passage of Abraham Lincoln's body home for burial was made possible by embalming and it brought the possibilities and potential of embalming to a wider public notice.

In 1867, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann discovered formaldehyde, whose preservative properties were soon discovered and which became the foundation for modern methods of embalming.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries arsenic was frequently used as an embalming fluid but has since been supplanted by other more effective and less toxic chemicals. There were questions about the possibility of arsenic from embalmed bodies later contaminating ground water supplies. There were also legal concerns as people suspected of murder by arsenic poisoning could claim that the levels of poison in the deceased's body were a result of embalming post mortem rather than evidence of homicide.

Embalming is distinct from taxidermy. Embalming preserves the human body intact, whereas taxidermy is the recreation of an animal's form using only the creature's skin.

Modern embalming is most commonly done to ensure a better presentation of the deceased for viewing by relatives and friends as, ceteris parabis, an embalmed body will look better than one this is unembalmed.[1][2]. A successful viewing is considered by many authorities[3][4][5] to be helpful in the grieving process.

Who is an embalmer?

The roles of a mortician and an embalmer are different. A mortician is a person who arranges for the final disposition of the deceased who may or may not prepare the deceased. An embalmer is someone who has been trained in the art and science of embalming and may not have any contact with the family, although many people fill both roles. Embalming training commonly involves formal study in anatomy, thanatology, chemistry and specific embalming theory (to widely varying levels depending on the region of the world one lives in) combined with practical instruction in a mortuary with a resultant formal qualification granted after the passing of a final practical examination and acceptance into a recognized embalming body. Examples of nationally recognized courses can be found found here[6] and here[7].

Legal requirements over who can practice vary geographically. Some regions or countries have no specific requirements as to who may practice embalming. Additionally, in many places embalming is not done by trained embalmers but rather by doctors who, while they have the required anatomical knowledge, are not trained specialists in this field.

In the United States, the title of an embalmer is based largely on the state that they are licensed in. In states such as Pennsylvania, Virginia, Minnesota and Maryland, a funeral director is someone who is licensed only to make arrangements and handle the business side of the funeral home while a mortician is licensed to do these things as well as to embalm.

Modern practices

As practiced in the funeral homes of the Western World (notably North America), embalming uses several steps. Modern embalming techniques are not the result of a single practitioner, but rather the accumulation of many decades, even centuries, of research, trial and error, and invention. A standardized version follows below, but variation on techniques is very common.

The deceased is placed on the mortuary table in the supine anatomical position with the head elevated by a headblock. The first step in embalming is to check that the individual is in fact deceased, and then verify the identity of the body (normally via wrist or leg tags). At this point embalmers commonly perform basic tests for signs of death, noting things such as clouded-over corneas, lividity, and rigor mortis or by simply attempting to palpate a pulse in the carotid or radial artery. In modern times people awakening on the preparation table is largely the province of horror fiction and urban myth. Any clothing on the corpse is removed and set aside and any personal effect such as jewelry is inventoried. A modesty cloth is sometimes placed over the genitalia. The corpse is washed in disinfectant and germicidal solutions. During this process the embalmer bends, flexes and massages the arms and legs to relieve rigor mortis. The eyes are posed using an eye cap that keeps them shut and in the proper expression. The mouth may be closed via suturing with a needle and ligature, using an adhesive, or by setting a wire into the maxilla and mandible with a needle injector, a specialized device most commonly utilized in North America and unique to mortuary practice. Care is taken to make the expression look as relaxed and natural as possible and ideally a recent photograph of the deceased while still living is used as a template. The process of closing the mouth, eyes, shaving, etc is collectively known as setting the features.

The actual embalming process usually involves four parts:

1. Arterial embalming, which involves the injection of embalming chemicals into the blood vessels, usually via the right common carotid artery. Blood and interstitial fluids are displaced by this injection and, along with excess arterial solution, are expelled via from the right jugular vein and collectively referred to as drainage. The embalming solution is injected with a centrifugal pump and the embalmer massages the corpse to break up circulatory clots as to ensure the proper distribution of the embalming fluid. This process of locating vessels for injection and drainage is referred to as raising with injection and drainage from a solitary location being known as a single-point injection. In cases of poor circulation of the arterial solution additional injection points (commonly the axillary, brachial or femoral arteries, with the ulnar, radial and tibial vessels if necessary) are used. The corresponding veins are commonly also raised and utilised for the purpose of drainage. Cases where multiple vessels are raised are referred to as multi-point injections, with a number referring to the extent of vessel's raised (ie a six-point injection or six-pointer). As a general rule the more points needing to be raised the greater the difficulty of the case. An injection utilizing both the left and right carotids is specifically referred to as a restricted cervical injection (RCI) while draining from a different site to injection (ie injecting arterial fluid into the right common carotid artery and draining from the right femoral vein) is referred to as a split injection.

2. Cavity embalming, the suction of the internal fluids of the corpse and the injection of embalming chemicals into body cavities, using an aspirator and trocar. The embalmer makes a small incision just above the navel and pushes the trocar in the chest and stomach cavities to puncture the hollow organs and aspirate their contents. He then fills the cavities with concentrated chemicals that contain formaldehyde. The incision is either sutured closed or a "trocar button" is screwed into place.

3. Hypodermic embalming, the injection of embalming chemicals under the skin as needed.

4. Surface embalming, which supplements the other methods, especially for visible, injured body parts.

A typical embalming takes several hours to complete. An embalming case that requires more attention or has unexpected complications could take substantially longer. The repair of an autopsy case or the restoration of a long-bone donor are two such examples.

Grooming

After the body is rewashed and dried, a moisturizing cream is applied to the face. The body will usually sit for as long as possible for observation by the embalmer. After being dressed for visitation/funeral services, cosmetics are applied to make it appear more lifelike and to create a "memory picture" for the deceased's friends and relatives. For babies who have died, the embalmer may apply a light cosmetic massage cream after embalming to provide a natural appearance; massage cream is also used on the lips to prevent them from dehydrating, and the infant's mouth is often left open a bit for a more natural expression. If possible, the funeral director uses a light, translucent cosmetic; sometimes, heavier, opaque cosmetics are used to hide bruises, cuts, or discolored areas. Makeup is applied to the lips to mimic their natural color. Sometimes a very pale or light pink lipstick is applied on males, while brighter colored lipstick is applied to females. Hair gels or baby oil is applied to style the hair, especially for deceased who are male. Powders(especially Baby Powder) are applied to the body to eliminate odors, and it is also applied to face to achieve Matte and Fresh Effect to prevent oiliness of the corpse. Powders are commonly applied to corpse of younger ages (about 12-30 years of age) especially teenagers who prefers matte look. Mortuary cosmetizing is not done for the same reason as make-up for living people; rather, it is designed to add depth and dimension to a person's features that the lack of blood circulation has removed. Warm areas - where blood vessels in living people are superficial, such as the cheeks, chin, and knuckles - have subtle reds added to recreate this effect, while browns are added to the palpabrae (eyelids) to add depth, especially important as viewing in a casket creates an unusual perspective rarely seen in everyday life. During the viewing, pink-colored lighting is sometimes used near the body to lend a warmer tone to the deceased's complexion. A photograph of the dead person in good health is often sought in order to guide the embalmer's hand in restoring the corpse to a more lifelike appearance. Blemishes and discolorations (such as bruises, in which the discoloration is not in the circulatory system and cannot be removed by arterial injection) occasioned by the last illness, the settling of blood, or the embalming process itself are also dealt with at this time (although some embalmers utilize hypodermic bleaching agents, such as phenol based cauterants, during injection to lighten discoloration and allow for easier cosmetizing).

Clothing

In the Western World men are typically buried in semi-formal clothing, such as a suit or coat and tie, and women in semi-formal dresses or pant suits. In recent years, a change has occurred and many individuals are now buried in less formal clothing such that they would have worn on a daily basis or other favourite attire. Clothing worn can also reflect the deceased person's profession or vocation: Priests and ministers are often dressed in their liturgical vestments and military personnel and police often wear their uniform. Underwear, singlets, bras, briefs and hosiery are all used if the family desire it and the deceased are dressed in them as they would be in life.

In certain instances a funeral director will request a specific style of clothing, such as a collared shirt or blouse, in order to cover traumatic marks or autopsy incisions. In other cases clothing may be cut down the back and placed on the deceased in this manner rather than a standard dressing procedure to ensure a proper fit. In many areas of Asia and Europe, the custom of dressing the body in a specially designed shroud/funeral gown, rather than in clothing used by the living, is preferred.

After the deceased has been dressed, they are placed in the casket (the term casket is derived from older usage to refer to a "jewel box", it is called a coffin when the container is anthropoid [a stretched hexagon] in form) for the various funeral rites. It is common for photographs, notes, cards and favorite personal items to be placed in the casket with the deceased. Even bulky and expensive items, such as electric guitars, are occasionally interred with a body. In some ways this mirrors the ancient practice of placing grave goods with a person for the afterlife. In traditional Chinese culture, paper substitutes of the goods are cremated with the deceased instead, as well as Hell Bank Notes specifically purchased for the occasion.

Embalming chemicals

Main article: Embalming chemicals

Embalming chemicals are a variety of preservatives, sanitizers, disinfectant agents and additives used in modern embalming to temporarily delay decomposition and restore a natural appearance for viewing a body after death. A mixture of these chemicals is known as embalming fluid and is used to preserve deceased individuals, sometimes only until the funeral, other times indefinitely.

Typical embalming fluid contains a mixture of formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, methanol, ethanol, and other solvents. The formaldehyde content generally ranges from 5 to 35 percent and the ethanol content may range from 9 to 56 percent.

Specialist embalming

Badly decomposing bodies, trauma cases, frozen and drowned bodies, and those to be transported for long distances also require special treatment beyond that for the "normal" case. The restoration of bodies and features damaged by accident or disease is commonly called restorative art or demisurgery and all qualified embalmers have some degree of training and practice in it. For such cases, the benefit of embalming is startlingly apparent. In contrast though, many people have unreasonable expectations of what a dead body should look like, due to the unrealistic portrayal of "dead" bodies (usually by live actors) in movies and television shows. Viewers generally have an unrealistic expectation that a body going through decomposition should look as it did before death. Ironically, the work of a skilled embalmer often results in the deceased appearing natural enough that the embalmer appears to have done nothing at all. Normally cosmeticians are very happy when someone can bring in a picture and the decedent's regular makeups, if worn, to help make their loved one to look as they did when alive.

Embalming autopsy cases differs from standard embalming because the nature of the post-mortem examination irrevocably disrupts the circulatory system, due to the removal of the organs and viscera. In these cases, a six-point injection is made through the two illiac or femoral arteries, subclavian or axillary vessels, and common carotids, with the viscera treated separately with cavity fluid or a special embalming powder in a viscera bag. In many morgues in the United States (such as the Los Angeles County Coroner) and New Zealand, these necessary vessels are carefully preserved during the autopsy; in countries in which embalming has been less common, such as Australia and Japan, they are routinely excised.

Long-term preservation requires different techniques, such as using stronger preservative chemicals and multiple injection sites to ensure thorough saturation of body tissues.

Embalming is meant to temporarily preserve the body of a deceased person. Regardless of whether embalming is performed, the type of burial or entombment, and the materials used — such as wood or metal caskets and vaults — the body of the deceased will eventually decompose. Modern embalming is done to delay decomposition so that funeral services may take place or for the purpose of shipping the remains to a distant place for disposition.

Embalming for anatomy education

A rather different process is used for cadavers embalmed for dissection by doctors and medical students. Here, the first priority is for long term preservation, not presentation. As such, medical embalmers use embalming fluids that contain concentrated formaldehyde (37–40%, known as formalin) as well as phenol and are made without dyes or perfumes. Many embalming chemical companies make specialized anatomical embalming fluids. Anatomical embalming is performed into a closed circulatory system. The fluid is injected with an embalming machine into an artery under high pressure and flow and allowed to swell and saturate the tissues. After the deceased is left to sit for a number of hours, the veinous system is opened and the fluid allowed to drain out, although many anatomical embalmers do not use any drainage technique.

Anatomical embalmers may choose to use gravity-feed embalming, where the container dispensing the embalming fluid is elevated above the body's level and fluid is slowly introduced over an extended time, sometimes as long as several days. Unlike standard arterial embalming, no drainage occurs and the body distends extensively with fluid. The distension eventually reduces, often under extended (up to six months) refrigeration, leaving a fairly normal appearance. There is no separate cavity treatment of the internal organs. Anatomically embalmed cadavers have a typically uniform grey colouration, due both to the high formaldehyde concentration and to the lack of red colouration (added normally to standard, non-medical, embalming fluids).

Religious practices

There is much difference of opinion amongst different faiths as to the permissibility of embalming. A brief overview of some of the larger faiths positions are examined below

• Most branches of the Christian faith generally allow embalming. Some bodies within Eastern Orthodoxy profess an absolute ban against embalming except when required by law or other necessity^[1], while others may discourage but do not prohibit it ^[2]. In general the decision on embalming is one that is dictated by the personal preference of the family rather than a specific church policy.

• The Book of Mormon and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints do not profess against embalming. Often, due to the custom of church members dressing the deceased, embalming is given preference.

• Members of Iglesia ni Cristo allows embalming for the view of their loved ones. It forbids autopsy and cremation because they believe the body of the deceased is sacred and should be cared for with respect. They dress and groom the deceased as they looked in life. The preferred method is arterial embalming which injects formaldehyde into the body.

• Many authorities hold Hinduism does not accept embalming. In practice, this is not an adamant prohibition, and embalming for those of Hindu faith are known to occur, generally for repatriation to India or the South Pacific and for the purposes of viewing and funerary rites at the family home.

• Members of Bahá'í Faith are not embalmed. Instead, the body is washed and placed in a cotton, linen or silk shroud. The body is to be buried within one hour's journey from the place of death, if this will be feasible. Cremation is also forbidden.

• Zoroastrians traditionally hold a type of sky burial within structures known as Towers of Silence in which the body is exposed to weathering and predation to dispose of the remains, and thus embalming the body is contrary to their funeral designs. This is due to the Zoroastrian belief that the dead body is unclean and the pure elements of earth and fire should not be allowed to come into contact with it. This practice is not universally performed any more, and many Iranian Zoroastrians perform traditional cremations and burials instead.

• Muslims are required to be buried within 24 hours of death, if possible. Embalming is forbidden. The body is washed and prepared specifically for interment. This procedure is to be done according to the last will of the deceased, usually by a close relative of the deceased who is of the same gender. He or she is then dressed in a plain white burial shroud (for women, the hair, ears and neck are covered as they were in life, preserving her dignity before men who are not closely related; men are buried in their ihram, or pilgrim garb, as worn during the Hajj in Mecca). Muslims believe that the spirit remains with the body from death until after burial, which is the reason for same-day burial, as well as the aforementioned procedures; the body is treated with the same care and respect as in life so as to not cause undue stress to the deceased. For the same reason, cremation is also forbidden. Prayers and readings of the Qur'an are spoken aloud to give comfort to the deceased, and the body is not left alone even for a time following the burial, during which the deceased is buried (preferably without a casket) on his or her right side, facing Mecca.

• Traditional Jewish law forbids embalming, and burial is to be done as soon as possible - preferably within 24 hours. However, under certain circumstances, burial may be delayed if it is impossible to bury a person immediately, or to permit the deceased to be buried in Israel. Guidance of a Rabbi or the local chevra kadisha (Jewish Burial Society) should be sought regarding any questions, as particular circumstances may justify leniencies. Notably the Biblical Joseph was embalmed in the Egyptian fashion (Genesis 50:26).

Fictional Depictions of Embalming

Fictional works tend to portray the fantastic, extraordinary and often dysfunctional aspects of any profession or activity with which the public has little contact, and to ignore the mundane or routine. Embalming is no exception.

• The Loved One, a satiric novel by Evelyn Waugh that was the basis for a movie of the same name directed by Terry Southern, is set in the funeral industry of Hollywood, California. Specifically, the story is a spoof of Forest Lawn-style mortuaries. The story centers on Dennis Barlow, a British expatriate who falls in love with Aimee Thanatogenos, a cosmetician at Whispering Glades Mortuary. This brings him into competition with Mr. Joyboy, the mortuary's chief embalmer who lusts after Aimee. In the movie, Mr. Joyboy (Rod Steiger) is shown shaping the face of Dennis' late uncle (John Gielgud) into ghoulish shapes.
• The film My Girl shows Dan Aykroyd as a funeral parlor owner, who throughout the movie is in the process of working on the deceased, usually embalming. In one instance when his daughter comes into his work area and begins to sing a song to his co-worker, he says "I'm embalming my high school teacher, don't sing".
• In an episode of Quantum Leap, Sam leaps into a small-town mortician. He learns that the young woman he is embalming did not in fact commit suicide and must prove that she was murdered. The episode also features a corpse beautician. Upon her preparation to begin making-up the body, Sam asks her "not to overdo it; keep it natural."
• The television show Six Feet Under, set in a funeral home, has brought embalming and funeral practice back into the public eye and is noted for its reality and dark humour. The character Hector Federico "Rico" Diaz is a full-time embalmer employed by the funeral home in the show. Many of the more extensive techniques, like a full face rebuild were of the fantastical nature. This television show does not accurately reflect the true, day-to-day activities of an actual funeral home and preparation room.
• In the film Tales from the Crypt, Richard Greene portrays a character who is killed in a car accident and then magically wished back to life forever, after he has been embalmed. As a result, he awakens in excruciating pain and there is no cure; he will be in physical agony permanently.
• The reality TV show Family Plots, which was shown on the A&E Network often gave viewers a behind-the-scenes look into the embalming room. The embalmer working at the mortuary at the time, Shonna Wissmiller Smith, had become a minor celebrity.
• In the episode of the cartoon South Park entitled Pinkeye Kenny is transformed into a zombie when Worcestershire sauce is used as embalming fluid.
• Many horror films dealing with animate mummies focus on gruesome aspect of Ancient Egyptian embalming practises, frequently having them embalmed alive as punishment for some transgression.
• In the end of the Vincent Price film The Abominable Dr. Phibes the central villain rather ludicrously embalms himself to be forever with his dead wife in the final sequence. This does not stop his resurrection for the sequel.
• There is a horror movie titled The Embalmer whose movie posters reads "...beauty after beauty dragged to a sunken crypt...petrified play-captives of THE EMBALMER".
• In the film Kissed the lead female character is a necrophiliac who is training to become an embalmer.
• In the TV Show, CSI:NY (Season 4, Episode 1) a person is shown being embalmed with orange dish soap while he was still alive. This was to make him confess to a murder he witnessed.
• Manga artist Mitsukazu Mihara made a five volume series entitled "The Embalmer" ("Shigeshoshi"). It focuses on the difficulties the main character, an embalmer named Shinjyurou, faces in Japan, where embalming is generally looked down upon. In 2007, TV Tokyo aired a drama series based on the manga, starring Wada Masato as Shinjyurou.
• John Keats refers to sleep as the "soft embalmer of the still midnight."
• Daytime television series "Come Dine With Me", features Gordon Todd,series two, who had studied embalming and had a picture of his father in his coffin in the spare bedroom.
• In the film The Godfather, Don Corleone (Marlon Brando) asks for an extensive embalming as a return favor from an undertaker whom he had assisted earlier. The corpse is the Don's son Sonny (James Caan) who had been brutally shot with dozens of machine-gun bullets.

Notable embalmings

• It was rumored that after her death Diana, Princess of Wales was hastily embalmed to cloud tests that she may have been pregnant. However if this were the case an autopsy would still have easily been able to determine such an obvious condition and the rumour is just urban myth. The British inquest into her death, concluded in April 2008, revealed that the princess's remains were decomposing so rapidly in the August heat that the hospital holding her had no choice but to embalm her, to keep her in viewable condition when Prince Charles came to visit later that day.[8][Telegraph.co.uk, 7 April 2008]

• Contrary to media reports John Paul II (pope 1978–2005) was not embalmed before lying in state and photographs of him clearly show the blotchiness and discoloration that is characteristic of lividity and the early stages of decomposition.

• Having died in the summer when heat would hasten decomposition, Paul VI (pope 1963–1978) decomposed at his lying in state, prompting Vatican officials to install fans around the body to disperse the odor.

• Pius XII's (pope 1939–1958) botched embalming by a charlatan doctor -- which only sped up the rate of decomposition -- led to his body turning black and his nose falling off while lying in state, and the body disintegrated in the coffin. The Swiss Guards stationed around Pius XII's body were forced to change shifts every ten to fifteen minutes since the body's odor caused some guards to pass out. The doctor who performed the embalming had also taken photos of the Pontiff in his death throes and intended to sell them to tabloids. The Italian tabloids refused to buy the photos, and the doctor was banned from entering the Vatican City-State by John XXIII, who furthermore prohibited any photography of a deceased Pope until the body is properly vested and laid out.
• Pope John XXIII's body is on display in an altar on the main floor of the Basilica of Saint Peter after having been exhumed from the grottoes beneath the main altar and has retained an extremely well-preserved state. If a body's remains do not decompose and this cannot be explained by science, it is often treated as a miracle.

However, the case of John XXIII's body did not enjoy the same acclamation, as it may have merely been due to embalming and adipocere formation.

• Murdered civil rights activist Medgar Evers was so well embalmed that a viable autopsy was able to be performed on his corpse decades after his death and this helped secure the conviction of his killer.

• Perhaps the most famous embalmed body of the 20th century is that of Vladimir Lenin, which continues to draw crowds decades after his death. Lenin's body is embalmed since his death in 1924 and is seen on public in Lenin's Tomb.

• Eva Perón ("Evita") was embalmed at the request of her husband, Argentine President Juan Perón, in order to make a Lenin-like shrine to her memory. A coup d'état toppled Perón, and his plan did not come to fruition. Sixteen years after her death, Eva Perón's body was exhumed and found to be in perfect condition, leading some sectors of Argentine society to call for her canonization.

• When Abraham Lincoln's body was embalmed, the embalmer preserved it for the long term. At the turn of the century, it was disinterred for forensic study, revealing a perfectly preserved corpse.

• Rosalia Lombardo, who died at age two on 6 December 1920 and was one of the last corpses to make it to the Capuchin catacombs of Palermo, Sicily before the local authorities banned the practice. Nicknamed the 'Sleeping Beauty', Rosalia's body is still perfectly intact. Embalmed by a certain Alfredo Salafia, she is in a glass case, looking very much like a surreal doll.

• Benigno S. "Ninoy" Aquino, Jr. (1932–1983), popular opposition leader to Philippine strongman Ferdinand Marcos, was not embalmed after his assassination. His mother decided against it so that the Filipino people can see "what they did to my son." Mourners saw the fresh exit wound on Aquino's chin where the bullet made its exit after coming in from the back.

References

1. Let's Talk About Death
2. Funerals

• Frederick, L.G.; Strub, Clarence G. [1959] (1989).]

The Principles and Practice of Embalming, 5th ed., Dallas, TX: Professional Training Schools Inc & Robertine Frederick. OCLC 20723376.

• Mayer, Robert G. (2000-01-27).

Embalming: History, Theory and Practice, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill/Appleton & Lange. ISBN 978-0838521878.

External links

• Official Site of the American Society of Embalmers
• Official Site of the Australian Institute of Embalming
• Official Site of the British Institute of Embalming
• Official Site of the New Zealand Embalmer's Association Incorporated

---

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia; from the article "Embalming". Image Credit.

bookmark   email   print   tweet   facebook