Domitian
Roman emperor
Bust of Domitian, Capitoline Museum, Rome
Reign	14 September, 81 AD – 18 September, 96 AD
Full name	Titus Flavius Domitianus
Born	24 October 51(51-10-24)
Birthplace	Rome
Died	18 September 96 (aged 44)
Place of death	Rome
Buried	Rome
Predecessor	Titus
Successor	Nerva
Wife	Domitia Longina (70–96)
Issue	One son, died young
Dynasty	Flavian
Father	Vespasian
Mother	Domitilla

Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 – 18 September 96), commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death on 18 September 96. Domitian was the last emperor of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 69 and 96, encompassing the reigns of Domitian's father Vespasian (69–79), his elder brother Titus (79–81), and finally Domitian's own.

Domitian spent much of his youth and early career in the shadow of his brother Titus, who gained military renown during campaigns in Germania and Judaea in the 60s. This situation continued under the rule of Vespasian, who became emperor on 21 December 69, following a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. While his elder brother shared almost equal powers in the government of his father, Domitian was left with honours but no responsibilities. Vespasian died on 23 June 79 and was succeeded by Titus, whose brief reign came to an unexpected end on 13 September 81. The following day, Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard, and began a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius.

Traditional views hold that Domitian was a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Among ancient authors, he ranks among the most reviled rulers in Roman history, earning comparison to such emperors as Caligula and Nero. Many of these views however, were propagated by hostile contemporary authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius, a small but highly vocal minority who exaggerated Domitian's harshness, in favour of the highly regarded Five Good Emperors who followed. Modern history has rejected these views,^[1] instead characterizing Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political programme was a precursor to the peaceful 2nd century, rather than the twilight of the tumultuous 1st century. Upon his death, he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva, thus commencing the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty.

Early life

Family

Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51, as the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus—commonly known as Vespasian—and Flavia Domitilla Maior.^[2] He had one older sister, Domitilla the Younger (b. 39), and one older brother, also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus (b. 39), but commonly referred to as Titus.

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old artistocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD.^[3] One such family was the gens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Domitian's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC.^[2] Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upwards mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Domitian's grandfather.^[4] Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia. By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank.^[4]

Flavian family tree, indicating the descendants of Titus Flavius Petro and Tertulla.

The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43.^[5] Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing,^[6] even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68).^[7] Modern history has refuted these claims however, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule, as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish early successes under the less reputable emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus.^[8] By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office in 63 under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa province, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66.^[9] The same year, the Jews of the Judaea province revolted, and Nero appointed Vespasian to lead the Roman army in the war against the insurgents.^[10] In this campaign he was joined by Titus, who had completed his military education by this time, and personally commanded one of Vespasian's three legions.^[11]

Youth and character

Bust of Vespasian from the Pushkin Museum, Moscow. When Domitian was fifteen, his father was assigned to command the Roman army against the Jewish revolt.

By 66, Domitian's mother and sister had long died, while his father and brother were continuously active in the Roman military, commanding armies in Germania and Judaea. For Domitian, this meant that a significant part of his adolescence was spent in the absence of his near relatives. During the Jewish-Roman wars, he was likely taken under the care of his uncle Titus Flavius Sabinus II, at the time serving as city prefect of Rome; or possibly even Marcus Cocceius Nerva, a loyal friend of the Flavians and the future successor to Domitian.^[10][12] He received the education of a young man of the privileged senatorial class, studying rhetoric and literature. In his biography in the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Suetonius attests to Domitian's ability to quote the important poets and writers such as Homer or Virgil on appropriate occasions,^[13][14] and describes him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation.^[15] Among his first published works were poetry, as well as writings on law and administration.^[10] Unlike his brother Titus however, Domitian was not educated at court. Whether he received a formal military training is not recorded, but according to Suetonius, he displayed considerable marksmanship with the bow and arrow.^[16][17]

A detailed description of Domitian's appearance and character is provided by Suetonius, who devotes a substantial part of his biography to his personality.

Domitian was allegedly extremely sensitive of his baldness, which he disguised in later life by wearing wigs.^[19] According to Suetonius, he even wrote a book on the subject of hair care.^[18] With regard to Domitian's personality however, the account of Suetonius alternates sharply between portraying Domitian as the emperor-tyrant, a man both physically and intellectually lazy, and the intelligent, refined personality drawn elsewhere.^[20] Brian Jones concludes in The Emperor Domitian, that assessing the true nature of Domitian's personality is inherently complicated by the bias of the surviving sources.^[20] Common threads nonetheless emerge from the available evidence. He appears to have lacked the natural charisma of his brother and father. He was prone to suspicion, displayed an odd, sometimes self-deprecating sense of humour,^[21][22] and often communicated in cryptic ways. This ambiguity of character was further exacerbated by his remoteness, and as he grew older, he increasingly displayed a preference for solitude, perhaps stemming from his isolated upbringing.^[10] Indeed by the age of eighteen, nearly all of his closest relatives had died by war or disease. Having spent the larger part of his early life in the twilight of Nero's reign, his formative years would have been strongly influenced by the political turmoil of the 60s, culminating with the civil war of 69, which brought his family to power.

Rise of the Flavian dynasty

Year of the Four Emperors

Map of the Roman Empire during the Year of the Four Emperors (69 AD). Blue areas indicate provinces loyal to Vespasian and Gaius Licinius Mucianus.

On June 9, 68, amidst growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide, and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously, the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, as emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new princeps.^[23] Before reaching Italy however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania. At the same time Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.^[24]

Otho and Vitellius were only too aware of the threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. His brother Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome.^[25] Tensions among the Flavian troops were high, but so long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action. When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum however,^[26] the armies in Judaea and Ægyptus took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on July 1, 69.^[27] Vespasian accepted, and through negotiations by Titus joined forces with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, governor of Syria.^[28] A strong force drawn from the Judean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself travelled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge to end the Jewish rebellion.^[29][30]

Bust of emperor Vitellius (16th century replica) from the Louvre, Paris.

In Rome meanwhile, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression.^[31] Support for the old emperor was quickly wavering however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On October 24, both sides clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius.^[32] In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II,^[33] but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard—the imperial bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty.^[34] On the morning of December 18, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord, but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill.^[35] During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On December 19, Vitellianists broke down the doors of the Arx, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed.^[36] Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis, and spent the night in safety with one of his father's clients.^[37] By the afternoon of December 20, Vitellius was dead, and his armies defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar, and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house.^[38] The following day, December 21, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.^[39]

Aftermath of the war

The Conspiracy of Gaius Julius Civilis (detail), by Rembrandt (1661). During the Batavian rebellion, Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory, but was denied command of a legion by superior officers.

Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, but Vespasian did not return until September of that year.^[37] In the mean time Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate. In addition to receiving the title of Caesar, he was appointed praetor with consular power.^[40] Domitian's authority was merely nominal however, foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years. By all accounts, Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian's absence, and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still only 18 years old, did not overstep the boundaries of his function.^[40] Tacitus describes Domitian's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured, at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions.^[41] Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar's entourage, promoting away influential generals such as Arrius Varus, Praetorian prefect, and Antonius Primus, who had led the Flavian forces at Bedriacum, and replacing them by more reliable men such as Arrecinus Clemens.^[40]

Equally curtailed by Mucianus were Domitian's military ambitions. The civil war of 69 had severely destabilized peace within the provinces, leading to several local rebellions which continued throughout 70. In Gaul, Batavian auxiliaries of the Rhine legions, led by Gaius Julius Civilis, had revolted and been joined by a faction of Treveri under command of Julius Classicus. Seven legions were sent from Rome, led by Vespasian's brother-in-law Quintus Petillius Cerialis.^[16] Although the revolt was quickly suppressed, exaggerated reports of disaster prompted Mucianus to depart the capital with reinforcements of his own. Domitian eagerly sought the opportunity to attain military glory, and joined the other officers with the intention of commanding a legion of his own. According to Tacitus, Mucianus was not keen on this prospect, but he considered Domitian a liability in whatever capacity entrusted to, and therefore preferred to keep him close at hand instead of at Rome.^[42] When news arrived of Cerialis' victory over Civilis, Mucianus tactfully dissuaded Domitian from pursuing further military endeavours.^[43] Domitian then wrote to Cerialis personally, suggesting to hand over command of his army, but once again, he was snubbed.^[44] With the return of Vespasian in late September finally, his political role was rendered all but obsolete. Domitian withdrew from government and devoted his time to arts and literature.^[44]

Marriage

Bust of Domitian's wife, Domitia Longina. Note the peculiar hairstyle, typical of the Flavian period.

Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment, Domitian's private affairs were more prosperous in 70. Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus, Julia Flavia,^[45] but Domitian was adamant of his love for Domitia Longina, going so far as to persuade her husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia, to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself.^[45] Despite its initial recklesness, the alliance was very prestigious for both families. Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, a respected general and honoured politician. Following the failed Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in 65, he had been forced to commit suicide. The new marriage not only re-established ties to senatorial opposition, but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time, which sought to diminish Vespasian's political success under Nero. Instead connections to Claudius and Britannicus were emphasised, and Nero's victims, or those otherwise disadvantaged by him, rehabilitated.^[46]

The marriage appears to have been happy, despite allegations by Roman sources of adultery and divorce.^[47] The couple had only one child, an unnamed son, born in 73, who died sometime around 81. It is believed that, because of this, Domitian exiled his wife on grounds of infertility in 83,^[48] but soon recalled her, either out of love or amidst allegations he carried on an affair with his niece Julia Flavia.^[49] It is not known whether Domitian ever had other children, but he did not marry another woman during his lifetime. Both Domitia and their son were deified following Domitian's accession as Emperor, and appeared as such on the reverse of coin types from this period.^[50]

Ceremonial heir

The Triumph of Titus, by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). This painting depicts the Flavian family during the triumphal procession of 71. Vespasian is depicted at the head of the family, dressed as pontifex maximus, followed by Domitian, clad in armour, with Domitia Longina, and finally Titus, also dressed in religious regalia.

In June 71, Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea. Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of over 1 million people, a majority of which were Jewish.^[51] The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed, its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 people were captured and enslaved.^[51] For his victory, the Senate awarded Titus a Roman triumph. On the day of the festivities, the Flavian family rode into the capital, preceded by a lavish parade which displayed the spoils of the war.^[52] The family procession was headed by Vespasian and Titus, while Domitian, riding a magnificent white horse, followed with the remaining Flavian relatives.^[53] Leaders of the Jewish resistance were executed in the Forum Romanum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter.^[52] To further memorialize the successful end of the war, a triumphal arch—the Arch of Titus—was erected at the south-east entrance to the Forum.

Yet, the return of Titus further highlighted the comparative insignificance of Domitian, both military and political. As the eldest and most experienced of Vespasian's sons, Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and was given command over the imperial bodyguard, the Praetorian guard;^[54] powers which left no doubt he was the designated heir to the Empire.^[55] As a second son, Domitian held honorary titles, such as Caesar or Princeps Iuventutis, and several priesthoods, including those of augur, pontifex, frater arvalis, magister frater arvalium, and sacerdos collegiorum omnium,^[56] but no office with imperium. He held only one ordinary consulship during Vespasian's reign, in 73, and five suffect consulships, in 71, 75, 76, 77 and 79 respectively, usually replacing his father or brother on the 13th of January. While merely ceremonial, these offices no doubt gained Domitian valuable experience in the Roman Senate, and may have contributed to his later reservations about its relevance.^[56] Under Vespasian and Titus, non-Flavians were virtually excluded from the important public offices. Mucianus himself all but disappeared from historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77.^[57] Real power was unmistakenly concentrated into the hands of the Flavian faction; the Senate remained merely a facade of democracy.

Titus succeeded his father as emperor on June 23, 79. His short rule came to an end when he unexpectedly died of fever on September 13, 81.

Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor to his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy took place when Vespasian died on June 23, 79.^[58] Titus assured Domitian that full partnership in the government would soon be his, but neither tribunician power nor imperium of any kind was conferred upon him during his brief reign.^[59] Understandably, the new emperor was not hardpressed to alter this arrangement anytime soon: he would have expected to rule for at least another twenty or thirty years, and more urgent attention was required to the multitude of disasters which struck throughout 79 and 80. On August 24, 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted,^[60] burying the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under metres of ash and lava; the following year, a fire broke out in Rome, lasting three days, which destroyed a number of important public buildings.^[61] Consequently, Titus spent much of his reign coördinating relief efforts and restoring damaged property. On September 13, 81 however, after barely two years in office, he unexpectedly died of fever during a trip to the Sabine territories.^[62]

A number of ancient authors have implicated Domitian in the death of his brother, either by directly accusing him of murder,^[63] or implying he left the ailing Titus for dead,^[53][64] further alleging that even during his lifetime, Titus was openly plotted against by his brother.^[64] The factual veracity of these statements, especially given the bias of the surviving sources, is difficult to assess. Brotherly affection was likely at a minimum, but this was hardly surprising, considering Domitian had barely seen Titus after the age of seven.^[59] Whatever the nature of their relationship, Domitian seems to have displayed little concern when his brother lay dying, instead making for the Praetorian camp where he was proclaimed emperor. The following day, September 14, the Senate confirmed Domitian's powers, granting tribunician power, the office of Pontifex Maximus, and the titles of Augustus, and Pater Patriae.

Emperor

Administration

Bust of Domitian as emperor, wearing the Civic Crown, from the Louvre, Paris.

As emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the Republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign.^[65] By moving the centre of government more or less formerly to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. In his view, the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy, with himself as the benevolent despot at its head.^[65] Much more than exercising political power however, Domitian believed the emperor's role enveloped every aspect of daily life, guiding the Roman people both as a cultural and moral authority.^[66] To usher in the new era of change, he embarked on several ambitious economic, military and cultural programmes, intended to restore the Empire to the glory it had once achieved under emperor Augustus.^[67]

Despite these grand designs however, Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously, to the extent that he became personally involved in all branches of the administration.^[68] Edicts were issued on the finest details of everyday life, while taxes, laws, and public morals were rigorously enforced. According to Suetonius, the imperial bureaucracy never ran more efficiently than under Domitian, whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among provincial governors and elected officials.^[69] Although he made no pretense of the Senate's insignificance, those senators deemed unworthy to be placed on the Senate roll were expelled, while in the distribution of public offices he rarely favoured his own family members, a policy which stood in sharp contrast to the nepotism practiced by Vespasian and Titus.^[70] Above all however, Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts, qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order, than members of the Senate or his own family, who he regarded with suspicion, and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy.^[71]

The reality of Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor since Tiberius, he spent significant periods of time away from the capital.^[72] Although the Senate's power had long detoriated since the fall of the Republic, under Domitian the seat of power no longer even seemed to be at Rome, but effectually wherever the Emperor was.^[65] Until the completion of the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill, the imperial court was primarily situated at Alba, or Circeo, and sometimes even farther afield. Domitian toured the European provinces extensively, and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and Illyricum, conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire.^[73]

Economy

Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman currency by increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. This coin commemorates the deification of Domitian's infant son, who is believed to have died sometime around 81.

Domitian's tendency for micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy. Although the question whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated, the evidence points to a relatively balanced economy for the larger part of Domitian's reign.^[74] Upon his accession, he revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85 however forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65,^[75] but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustainted for the following eleven years.^[75] Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits.^[75]

Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii, of which over one third would presumably have been spent at maintaining the Roman army.^[74] The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself. At the time the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the Great Fire of 64, the civil war of 69, and the fire of 79.^[76] Much more than a renovation project however, Domitian's building programme was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus.^[76] Among the most important new structures were an Odeum, a Stadium, and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill, later known as the Flavian Palace, which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius.^[77] The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, which was said to have been covered with a gilded roof. Among those he completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus, and the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area.^[78]

In order to appease the people of Rome, an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign,^[79] while large sums were invested on entertainment and games. In 86 Domitian introduced the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot races, and competitions for oratory, music and acting.^[80] The Emperor himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole Empire and attributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, nighttime battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights.^[81] To the chariot races finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, besides White, Red, Green and Blue.

Military

Reconstructed Roman watchtower along the Limes Germanicus. Domitian's most significant military contribution was the expansion of the border defenses.

The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.^[82] His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire.^[83] Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland. Domitian also founded a new legion in 82, the Legio I Minervia, to fight against the Chatti.^[84]

Domitian's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government. His competency as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however.^[82] Although he claimed several triumphs, the most important of which against the Chatti, these were largely propaganda manoeuvres, since these wars were still being fought. Tacitus derided Domitian's achievements as "mock triumphs", further criticizing his decision to retreat from Britain following the conquests of Agricola.^[85][86] Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been highly popular amongst the soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns—more than any emperor since Augustus—and raising their pay by one third.^[87][83] While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned.^[88]

Campaign against the Chatti

Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a census, and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti.^[89] For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75 km of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy's hiding places.^[84] Although little information survives of actual battles fought, enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of Germanicus.^[90] This supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as "uncalled for",^[91] and a "mock triumph".^[85] Evidently, the Chatti were not conquered, as indicated by their role in Saturninus' revolt later in 89.^[83]

Conquest of Britain

One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus, whose biography of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola largely concerns the conquest of Britain between 77 and 84.^[83]

Dacian wars

Main article: Dacian Wars

Modern rock sculpture of Decebalus, who lead the Dacians to victory against the Roman army at the First Battle of Tapae.

The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harrassed Roman settlements along the Danube river. Of these, the Sarmatians and the Dacians were the most formidable. Sometime around 84 or 85 the Dacians, led by King Decebalus, crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus.^[92] Domitian immediately launched a counteroffensive, personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his Praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus. Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph.^[93] The victory proved to be short-lived however, as early in 86, Fuscus embarked on an ill-fated expedition into Dacia, which resulted in the complete destruction of the fifth legion, Legio V Alaudae, near Tapae. Fuscus was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard lost.^[94]

Domitian returned to Moesia in August of 86. He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under command of Tettius Julianus, and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished.^[95] An attack on the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa was forestalled however, when new troubles arose on the German frontier in 89. In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus, allowing free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region, while Decebalus himself was granted an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces.^[72] Contemporary authors severely criticized this treaty, which was considered shameful to the Romans, and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged.^[96] For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan, in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the gold and silver mines of Dacia.^[97]

Religious policy

Roman aureus minted under Domitian. The reverse depicts the goddess Minerva, which was Domitian's favoured deity, and appeared on numerous coin types throughout his reign. This particular reverse depicts the goddess advancing with a javelin and a shield in hand.

Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion, and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign. In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter,^[66] perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. A small chapel dedicated to Jupiter Conservator was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on December 20, 69. Later in his reign, he replaced it with a more expansive building, dedicated to Jupiter Custos.^[98] The goddess he worshipped the most zealously however was Minerva.^[99] Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom, she regularly appeared on his coinage—in four different attested reverse types—and he founded a legion, Legio I Minervia, in her name.^[100] Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. He conferred divine honours upon Titus, and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother.^[78] To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus.

Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of Domitian's religious policy, which also concerned itself with the fulfillment of religious law and public morals. In 85, he nominated himself perpetual censor, the office which held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct.^[101] Once again, Domitian acquited himself of this task dutifully, and with care. He renewed the Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis, under which adultery was punishable by exile. From the list of jurors he struck an equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back, while an ex-quaestor was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing.^[69] Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials, removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a conflict of interest was suspected.^[69] He ensured that libellous writings, especially those directed against himself, were punishable by exile or death.^[68] Actors were likewise regarded with suspicion, as their performances provided an opportunity for satire at the expense of the government.^[102] Subsequently, he forbade mimes from appearing on stage in public. In 87, Vestal Virgins were found to have broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity. As the Vestals were regarded as daughters of the community, this offense essentially constituted incest. Accordingly, those found guilty of any such transgression were condemned to death, either by a manner of their choosing, or according to the ancient fashion, which dictated that Vestals should be buried alive.^[103]

Foreign religions were tolerated in as much as they did not interfere with public order, or could be assimilated with traditional Roman religion. The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty, to an extent not seen again until the reign of Commodus. Veneration of Serapis and Isis, who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively, was especially prominent.^[100] A tradition stemming from the 15th century maintains that Jews and Christians were heavily persecuted toward the end of Domitian's reign.^[104] The Book of Revelation is thought to have been written during this period, as a reaction against these persecutions.^[105] However no convincing evidence exists of any widespread religious oppression under Domitian.^[106][107] Although Jews were heavily taxed, no contemporary authors mention trials or executions based on religious offenses other than those within the Roman religion.

Opposition

Revolt of Saturninus

On January 1, 89, the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti.^[88] The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The Senatorial officers may have dissaproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, as well as his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus.^[108] At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior, Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Norbanus. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid.^[91] Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions where sent to the front of Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded.

Lappius Maximus received the governorship to the province of Syria, a consulship in May 95, and finally a priesthood which he still held by 102. Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt, but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94, with Titus Petronius Secundus as his colleague.^[109] Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with Marcus Cocceius Nerva, suggesting the latter had played some part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar as he did during the Pisonian conspiracy under Nero. Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96, he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat, surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians' most trusted advisors.^[110] His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasise the stability and status-quo of the regime.^[111] The revolt had been suppressed, and the Empire could return to order.

Relationship with the Senate

The emperor is known, however, to have developed a paranoid fear of persecution that led him to kill or execute several members of the senatorial and equestrian orders. At least twenty political and ideological opponents were executed, including his cousin, the Consul Flavius Clemens. Domitian disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate.

Death and succession

Assassination

According to Suetonius, Domitian worshipped Minerva (19th century mosaic) as his protector goddess with superstitious veneration. In a dream, she is said to have abandoned the emperor prior to the assassination.

Domitian was murdered on September 18, 96, in a palace conspiracy organized by court officials.^[112] A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided to us by Suetonius, who alleges that Domitian's chamberlain Parthenius was the chief instigator behind the conspiracy, citing the recent execution of Domitian's secretary Epaphroditus as the primary motive.^[113] The murder itself was carried out by a freedman of Parthenius named Maximus, and a steward of Domitian's niece Flavia Domitilla, named Stephanus. The precise involvement of the Praetorian guard is less clear however. At the time, the Guard was headed by Norbanus and Titus Petronius Secundus, the latter who seems almost certainly to have been aware of the plot against Domitian.^[114] Cassius Dio, writing nearly a hundred years after the assassination, also includes Domitia Longina among the conspirators, but in light of her well attested devotion to Domitian—even years after her husband had died—her involvement in the plot seems highly unlikely.^[115]

Dio further suggests the assassination was improvised on the spur of a moment.^[116] The account of Suetonius however implies a well organized conspiracy. For some days before the attack took place, Stephanus feigned an injury so as to be able to conceal a dagger beneath his bandages.^[117] On the day of the assassination, the doors to the servants' quarters were locked, while Domitian's personal weapon of last resort, a sword he concealed beneath his pillow, had been disabled in advance.^[117] The emperor believed that, according to an astrological prediction, he would die around noon. Therefore, he was always restless during this time of the day. On his last day, Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant boy several times what time it was. The boy, included in the plot, lied, saying that it was much later.^[118] More at ease, the emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees, where he was suddenly approached by Stephanus:

Domitian and Stephanus continued to wrestle on the ground for some time, until he was finally overpowered and fatally stabbed by the conspirators. Around noon the emperor, just one month short of his 45th birthday, was dead. His body was carried away on a common bier, and unceremoniously cremated by his nurse Phyllis, who later mingled the ashes with those of his niece Julia, at the Flavian temple.^[117] According to Suetonius, a number of omens had foretold Domitian's death.^[99] Several days prior to the assassination, Minerva appeared to him in a dream, announcing she had been disarmed by Jupiter, and would no longer be able to protect him.^[99]

Succession and aftermath

Bust of emperor Nerva. According to some authors, Nerva took part or had advance knowledge of the plot against Domitian. Immediately following the assassination, he was proclaimed emperor by the Senate.

The Fasti Ostienses, the Ostian Calendar, records that the same day, Marcus Cocceius Nerva was proclaimed emperor.^[119] At the time, he was considered an unlikely choice for the position, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination.^[120][121] Cassius Dio writes that prior to the assassination, the conspirators discussed the matter of succession with various candidates they deemed viable, one of which was Nerva, who was approached not only on account of his administrative qualities, but also because they claimed he had recently fallen under suspicion of Domitian, and would have nothing further to lose if he took part in the plot.^[122] While his involvement in the conspiracy may never be ascertained,^[123] modern historians now believe Nerva was proclaimed emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate, within hours after the news of the assassination broke.^[119] Neither appears to have been involved in the conspiracy.^[124]

Following the accession of Nerva as emperor, the Senate passed damnatio memoriae on Domitian: his coins and statues were melted, his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records.^[125][126] Domitian is the only known emperor to have officially received a damnatio memoriae, though others may have received de facto ones. In many instances, existing portraits of Domitian, such as those found on the Cancelleria Reliefs, were simply recarved to fit the likeness of Nerva. This allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material.^[127] Nearly all surviving statues of Domitian were found in the provinces. The palace of Domitian was renamed the "House of the People", and Nerva himself took up residence in Vespasian's former villa, the Gardens of Sallust.^[128]

Despite the swift transition of power, support for Domitian remained strong in the army, which had called for his deification immediately after the assassination.^[125] As a compensation measure, the Praetorian guard demanded the execution of Domitian's assassins, which Nerva refused.^[129] Instead he merely dismissed Titus Petronius Secundus, and replaced him with a former commander, Casperius Aelianus.^[130] Dissatisfaction with this state of affairs continued to loom over Nerva's reign, and ultimately erupted into a crisis in October of 97, when members of the Praetorian guard, led by Casperius Aelianus, laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took Nerva hostage.^[131] He was forced to submit to their demands, agreeing to hand over those responsible for Domitian's death and even giving a speech thanking the rebellious Praetorians.^[132] Titus Petronius Secundus and Parthenius were sought out and killed. Nerva was unharmed in this assault, but his authority was damaged beyond repair.^[131] Shortly thereafter he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor,^[131] and with this decision all but abdicated.^[133][134]

Legacy

Ancient sources

The classic view of Domitian as Emperor is usually negative since most of the antique sources are related to the Senatorial aristocratic class, and, as emperor, Domitian tended to have a strong independent action, often against the Senate. Juvenal, Tacitus and Suetonius authored information about the reign of Domitian after it ended. This would have been impolitic.

• Juvenal, an author of Roman satire, depicted Domitian and his court as corrupt, violent, and unjust.
• Martial's work contains references and epigrams to Domitian.
• Suetonius, author of the Lives of the Twelve Caesars, the most extensive ancient account of the life of the emperor extant.
• Statius wrote four poems that contained information about Domitian's life.
• Tacitus, a historian, spoke from personal knowledge when he wrote his Histories on the arc of the Flavian dynasty. Unfortunately, the part of this work dealing with the reign of Domitian is lost.

Modern revisionism

Hostile views of Domitian were propagated until well into the early 20th century, before archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign, and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Suetonius. In 1930 Ronald Syme argued a complete reassessment of Domitian's financial policy, which had until then been largely viewed as a disaster, opening his paper with the following introduction:

Domitian in later arts

Literature

• Domitia and Domitian (2000), a historical novel by David Corson based on the works of Brian Jones and Pat Southern, revolving around the titular characters.
• Marcus Didius Falco novels (1989–?), a series of historical crime novels by Lindsey Davis, set during the reign of Vespasian.
• The Light Bearer (1994), a historical novel by Donna Gillespie.
• The Roman Actor (1626), a play by Philip Massinger which features Domitian as the main character.

Painting

• The Triumph of Titus by Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1885). Oil on canvas. Private collection. This painting depicts the triumphal procession of Titus and his family. Alma-Tadema was known for his meticulous historical research on the ancient world.^[136] Vespasian, dressed as Pontifex Maximus, walks at the head of his family, followed by Domitian and his first wife Domitia Longina, who he had only recently married. Behind Domitian follows Titus, dressed in religious regalia. An exchange of glances between Titus and Domitia suggests an affair which historians have speculated upon.^[62][64]

Film and television

• La Rivolta dei Pretoriani (1964), Italian film directed by Alfonso Brescia, concerning a fictional plot of the Praetorian guard to overthrow Domitian, with Piero Lulli as Domitian.
• Dacii (1967), Romanian film directed by Sergiu Nicolaescu about the Dacian campaign of Domitian, with György Kovács as Domitian.
• Age of Treason (1993), English television film, featuring Marcus Didius Falco from the crime novels by Lindsey Davis. The story is set during the reign of Vespasian, with Domitian, played by Jamie Glover, as a peripheral character.
• San Giovanni - L'apocalisse (2003), English television film concerning the purported persecution of Christians under Domitian, who appears as a major character, played by Bruce Payne.

Notes

References

• Grainger, John D. (2003). Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28917-3. 
• Jones, Brian W. (1992). The Emperor Domitian. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10195-6. 
• Morgan, Llewelyn (1997). "Achilleae Comae: Hair and Heroism According to Domitian" (subscription required). The Classical Quarterly, New Series 47 (1): pp. 209–214. doi:10.1093/cq/47.1.209. 
• Murison, Charles Leslie (2003). "M. Cocceius Nerva and the Flavians" (subscription required). Transactions of the American Philological Association 133 (1): pp. 147–157. doi:10.1353/apa.2003.0008. 
• Syme, Ronald (1930). "The Imperial Finances under Domitian, Nerva and Trajan". The Journal of Roman Studies 20: pp. 55–70. doi:10.2307/297385. 

Further reading

• Gsell, Stéphane (1894). Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Domitien (HTML, PDF), Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome (in French), Paris: E. Thorin. 
• Southern, Pat (1997). Domitian: Tragic Tyrant. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16525-3. 

External links

Primary sources

• Cassius Dio, Roman History Book 67, English translation
• Suetonius, The lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Domitian, Latin text with English translation
• Tacitus, Agricola, English translation
• Tacitus, Histories, English translation

Secondary material

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia; from the article "Domitian". Image Credit.

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