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Drug

Specialty Definition: Drug

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Specialty Definition: Drug

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

A drug is any substance that can be used to treat an illness, relieve a symptom or modify a chemical process in the body for a specific purpose. The term is necessarily a vague one, being defined by intent: for example, foods consumed for normal metabolism are not generally considered "drugs", but the same foods consumed for a more specific purpose (such as the use of alcohol as a depressant or caffeine as a stimulant) may be.

• Medicinal drugs (for example, to treat injury or disease). Please see Pharmacology.

• Recreational drug use - Drugs used in a non-medical manner.

• Analgesic (painkiller) drugs
  • Aspirin or acetylsalicylic acid
  • Acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol or under its trade name Tylenol)
  • Opiates
    • Morphine
    • Heroin
    • Codeine

Opiates are also used as recreational drugs. They are addictive.

Acetaminophen and other non-opiate painkillers are often used in drug mixes for recreational purposes.

• Recreational drugs (to alter mood or body function for recreation).
  • Alcohol
  • Nicotine
  • Caffeine
  • Hallucinogens
  • Cannabis
  • MDMA
  • GHB
  • Heroin
  • Cocaine
  • Inhalants
  • dissociative drugs

• Performance-enhancing drugs (for sport or combat).
  • Amphetamine
  • Ephedrine
  • Cocaine
  • Anabolic steroids

Many enhancing drugs are also used for recreational purposes.

Regulations

Usage of most of drugs is regulated to some extent. While details vary with location, these are somewhat usual regulations:

Not regulated:

• Caffeine

Regulated to some extent (age or labeling requirements, for example) but available over the counter:

• DXM/dextromethorphan
• Acetylsalicylic acid (such as aspirin)
• Acetaminophen (also known as paracetamol) (such as Tylenol)
• Alcohol (although in some nations with an Islamic background, alcohol is prohibited)
• Nicotine
• Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine
• Taurine

Prescription drugs, prohibited for non-medical use:

• Cocaine
• Codeine
• GHB
• Amphetamines
• Anabolic steroids
• Inhalants
• Methadone
• Morphine

Varies from tolerated to prohibited for medical use:

• Cannabis
• Salvia divinorum (prohibited in Australia, tolerated elsewhere)

Varies from prohibited for non-medical use to prohibited for any use

• Heroin

Prohibited for any use, no medical uses currently allowed

• MDMA
• LSD

UN Documents

Three international UN treaties regulate drug laws:

• UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs from 1961, see http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/index.htm
• UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances from 1971, see http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1971/index.htm
• UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances from 1988, see http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1988/index.htm

The UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention (http://www.undcp.org/) is charged with overseeing these treaties and maintains a list of signatory nations at http://www.undcp.org/treaty_adherence.html.

See also

Drug addiction, medication, narcotic, illegal drug trade, route of administration In ancient Vedic Hinduism, the Drugs are a class of demons.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Drug."

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Drug addiction

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Drug addiction is the habit of drug use, generally under little self-control. The addictive nature of some drugs causes people to acquire a perceived dependence on them.

This dependence appears to be caused by the drugs' action on the central nervous system, where they appear to stimulate the neurotransmitter pathways of the brain by a variety of actions, such as simulating the effects of natural neurotransmitters such as serotonin or dopamine.

When drug stimulation ceases, a variety of withdrawal symptoms may be felt, commonly including mental depression.

The desire for continued drug stimulation, and countering these withdrawal effects, is thought to be what drives drug-users to pursue more stimulants, causing a increasingly destructive cycle of psychological dependency on a stimulant or stimulants.

The most common drug addictions are to legal substances such as

• Alcohol
• Nicotine in the form of tobacco, particularly cigarettes
• Caffeine in the form of tea and coffee

Many legal drugs can be used in an addictive way.

In addition, a large number of other substances are of concern as illegal drugs, the most famous of which are heroin, cocaine, cannabis and MDMA.

In jurisdictions where addictive drugs are illegal, they are generally supplied by criminal drug dealers, often in the form of organized crime. The addict's need to support the high cost of illegal addictive drugs is one of the major causes of crime.

The War on Drugs is a U.S. attempt to reduce the harm caused by drug addiction and crime. Critics of the War on Drugs argue that like Prohibition, the 1920s attempt to control alcohol, the War on Drugs may actually be counter-productive. Instead, they call for the total or partial legalization of currently illegal addictive drugs.

Classes of drugs regulated by the U.S. Controlled Substances Act:

• Depressants
• Hallucinogens
• Narcotics
• Stimulants
• Anabolic steroids

Drugs in particular and groups of drugs including Licit Drugs and Chemicals of Concern, as listed on the DEA website:

• Methamphetamine and other Amphetamines
• OxyContin
• Cocaine
• LSD
• Heroin
• Ketamine
• Marijuana
• MDMA (Ecstasy)
• Steroids
• other club drugs
• Anorectic Drugs
• Barbiturates
• Benzodiazepines
• Buprenorphine
• Butorphanol
• Cannabis
• Chloral hydrate
• Codeine
• Dextroproxyphene
• Fentanyl
• Glutethimide
• Methaqualone
• Hashish
• Hashish oil
• Hydrocodone
• Hydromorphone (Dilaudid®)
• Inhalants
• Khat
• LAAM
• Meperidine
• Meprobamate
• Methadone
• Methcathinone
• Methylphenidate (Ritalin)
• Morphine
• Opium
• Pentazocine (Talwin®)
• Paraldehyde (Paral®)
• Peyote
• Mescaline
• Phencyclidine (PCP)
• Psilocybin & Psilocyn & other Tryptamines
• Rohypnol® (Flunitrazepam)
• Thebaine

See also:List of celebrities who've suffered drug addiction

External links

• DEA list of drugs and drug types

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Drug addiction."

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Illegal drug trade

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

In jurisdictions where certain addictive drugs are illegal, they are generally supplied by criminal drug dealers, often in the form of organized crime. Trade in them is driven by the neurophysiology of drug addiction, and the economics of greed and poverty.

The addict's need to support the high cost of illegal addictive drugs is one of the major causes of crime. Some estimates place the value of the global trade in illegal drugs at around $400 billion per year (U.S. dollars as of 2000).

Major consumer countries include the United States and European nations, although consumption is world-wide.

As with legal commerce, the illegal drug trade is multi-layered and often multi-national, with layers of manufacturers, processors, distributors, wholesalers and retailers. Financing is also important, generally involving money laundering to hide the source of the illegal profits. All of these are made more complex by their illegality, but the normal laws of economics still apply, with the efforts of law enforcement regarded by the drug trade as a extra business cost.

The drug trade is a very fragmented industry with the most popular product, marijuana, being grown locally by a large amount of inviduals (without any organization). Similarly drugs like LSD with very low profit margins were sold more for philanthropic reasons then for profit. The main organized drug cartels deal with cocaine, heroin, and MDMA, and it is these that are the primary focus of the United States Drug Enforcement Administration. In places where alcohol is illegal, such as Saudi Arabia, it may also be the subject of illegal trading. In the United States during the Prohibition, it was dominated by the Cosa Nostra.

Some prescription drugs are also available by illegal means, eliminating the need to manufacture and process the drugs. Prescription opiates for example, are usually much stronger then heroin found on the street. They are sold primarily via prescriptions from unscrupulous doctors and clinics. However, it is much easier to control traffic in prescription drugs than in illegal drugs.

Legal drugs like tobacco can be the subject of smuggling and illegal trading if the taxes are high enough to make it profitable.

Because disputes cannot be resolved through legal means, participants at every level of the illegal drugs industry are liable to compete with one another through violence. Some of the largest and most violent drug trafficking organizations are known as drug cartels. Two of the most well known recent groups were the Cali Cartel and the Medellin Cartel.

Manufacturing and processing

Illegal drugs can be broken down into two major classes: those extracted from plants, and those synthesized from chemical precursors. For the first class, such as marijuana and cocaine, the growing area is important, and substantial farming is needed for mass production. For the second class, such as MDMA and methamphetamine, access to chemical precursors is most important.

Major drug farming and manufacturing countries include

• Colombia and other Latin American countries,
• the Asian Golden Triangle of border areas of Thailand, Burma and Laos.
• Afghanistan and border areas of Pakistan

Synthetic illegal drugs can either be manufactured in the country of consumption, or abroad.

Distribution and wholesaling

• to be written -- topics include:
• smuggling
• security problems similar to distribution of other high-value materials
• and hence gang-on-gang crime

Retail drug dealing and users

Street drug dealing is the bottom of the chain. Street drug dealing is sometimes associated with other crimes such as pimping. Many users also deal as a part-time activity to fund their own drug use.

Fictional deptictions of the illegal drugs trade

• the novel Clockers for a depiction of the bottom end of the drug trade
• the film Traffic for a depiction of the illegal drug trade viewed from multiple perspectives
• the film Scarface

See also:

• street culture
• recreational drug use
• drug paraphenalia
• War on Drugs
• money laundering

External links

• Centres for Disease Control statistics on U.S. drug use
• U.S. Government guide to drug street terms
• U.S. Government guide to spending on illegal drugs
• U.S. DOJ history of illegal drug trade (rather self-serving and biased, represents DEA as triumphant over drugs)
• UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances from 1988, see http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1988/index.htm

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Illegal drug trade."

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Narcotic

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The term narcotic, derived from the Greek word for stupor, originally referred to a variety of substances that induced sleep (such state is narcosis). In a legal context, narcotic refers to opium, opium derivatives, and their semisynthetic or totally synthetic substitutes. Cocaine and coca leaves, which are classified as "narcotics" in the Controlled Substances Act (CSA), are technically not narcotics.

Narcotics can be administered in a variety of ways. Some are taken orally, transdermally (skin patches) or injected. They are also available in suppositories. As drugs of abuse, they are often smoked, sniffed or self-administered by the more direct routes of subcutaneous ("skin popping") and intravenous ("mainlining") injection.

Drug effects depend heavily on the dose, route of administration, previous exposure to the drug, and the expectation of the user. Aside from their clinical use in the treatment of pain, cough suppression and acute diarrhea, narcotics produce a general sense of well-being by reducing tension, anxiety, and aggression. These effects are helpful in a therapeutic setting but contribute to their abuse.

Narcotic use is associated with a variety of unwanted effects including drowsiness, inability to concentrate, apathy, lessened physical activity, constriction of the pupils, dilation of the subcutaneous blood vessels causing flushing of the face and neck, constipation, nausea and vomiting and, most significantly, respiratory depression. As the dose is increased, the subjective, analgesic, and toxic effects become more pronounced. Except in cases of acute intoxication, there is no loss of motor coordination or slurred speech as occurs with many depressants.

Among the hazards of illicit drug use is the ever-increasing risk of infection, disease and overdose. Medical complications common among narcotic abusers arise primarily from adulterants found in street drugs and in the non-sterile practices of injecting. Skin, lung and brain abscesses, endocarditis, hepatitis and AIDS are commonly found among narcotic abusers. Since there is no simple way to determine the purity of a drug that is sold on the street, the effects of illicit narcotic use are unpredictable and can be fatal.

Most of these hazards are secondary to illegality and impurities, rather than being inherent to the chemicals themselves. This is one of the arguments used for legalization of narcotics: not that heroin isn't harmful, but that addicts would be at less risk if they could go to a pharmacy and get heroin of known purity, with no dangerous contaminants, and clean syringes. The suggestion is to make narcotics prescription-only, in order to discourage casual use and experimentation. During the 1990s, clean syringes became more readily available, despite opponents who feared that this would meant that society "condoned drug use". HIV and hepatitis infection rates dropped among opiate injectors who had access to clean syringes.

With repeated use of narcotics, tolerance and dependence develop. The development of tolerance is characterized by a shortened duration and a decreased intensity of analgesia, euphoria and sedation, which creates the need to administer progressively larger doses to attain the desired effect. Tolerance does not develop uniformly for all actions of these drugs, giving rise to a number of toxic effects. Although the lethal dose is increased significantly in tolerant users, there is always a dose at which death can occur from respiratory depression.

Physical dependence refers to an alteration of normal body functions that necessitates the continued presence of a drug in order to prevent the withdrawal or abstinence syndrome. The intensity and character of the physical symptoms experienced during withdrawal are directly related to the particular drug of abuse, the total daily dose, the interval between doses, the duration of use and the health and personality of the addict. In general, narcotics with shorter durations of action tend to produce shorter, more intense withdrawal symptoms, while drugs tha produce longer narcotic effects have prolonged symptoms that tend to be less severe.

The withdrawal symptoms experienced from heroin- or morphine-like addiction are usually experienced shortly before the time of the next scheduled dose. Early symptoms include watery eyes, runny nose, yawning and sweating. Restlessness, irritability, loss of appetite, tremors and severe sneezing appear as the syndrome progresses. Severe depression and vomiting are not uncommon. The heart rate and blood pressure are elevated. Chills alternating with flushing and excessive sweating are also characteristic symptoms. Pains in the bones and muscles of the back and extremitites occur as do muscle spasms and kicking movements, which may be the source of the expression "kicking the habit." At any point during this process, a suitable narcotic can be administered that will dramatically reverse the withdrawal symptoms. Without intervention, the syndrome will run its course and most of the overt physical symptoms will disappear within 7 to 10 days.

The psychological dependence that is associated with narcotic addiction is complex and protracted. Long after the physical need for the drug has passed, the addict may continue to think and talk about the use of drugs. There is a high probability that relapse will occur after narcotic withdrawal when neither the physical environment nor the behavioral motivators that contributed to the abuse have been altered.

There are two major patterns of narcotic abuse or dependence seen in the United States. One involves individuals whose drug use was initiated within the context of medical treatment who escalate their dose through "doctor shopping" or branch out to illicit drugs. A very small percentage of addicts are in this group.

The other more common pattern of abuse is initiated outside the therapeutic setting with experimental or recreational use of narcotics. The majority of individuals in this category may abuse narcotics sporadically for months or even years. These occasional users are called "chippers." Although they are neither tolerant of nor dependent on narcotics, the social, medical and legal consequences of their behavior is very serious. Some experimental users will escalate their narcotic use and will eventually become dependent, both physically and psychologically. The earlier drug use begins, the more likely it is to progress to abuse and dependence. Heroin use among males in inner cities is generally initiated in adolescence, and dependence develops in about 1 or 2 years.

See also : Drug, narcoterrorism

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Narcotic."

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Pharmacology

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Pharmacology is a branch of science about medicinal substances, called pharmaceuticals, or simply "drugs". The field encompases drug composition, drug properties, interactions, toxicology, and desirable effects that can be used in therapy of diseases.

Greek : pharmacon - drug, logos - science.

Medication drugs have to be approved by drug regulatory authorities. This field is called regulatory affairs. The International Conference on Harmonisation works in the standardisation for this.

There are various classification systems for medicinal products including ATC classification.

Classes of medicinal products

For the Gastrointestinal Tract

(see also Digestive system) antacid, reflux suppressant, antiflatulent, antidopaminergic, antispasmodic, proton pump inhibitor, H2 antagonists, cytoprotectant, prostaglandin analogue, laxative, antidiarrhoeal, bile acids

For the Cardiovascular System

ACE inhibitor, cardiac glycoside, phosphodiesterase inhibitor, nitrate, antiarrhythmic, beta-receptor blocker, antianginal, diuretic, antihypertensive, calcium channel blocker, alpha blocker, vasodilator, peripheral activator, anticoagulant, heparin, antiplatelet drug, fibrinolytic, haemostatic drug, hypolipidaemic agent, statin.

For the Central Nervous System

hypnotic, anxiolytic, antipsychotic, antidepressant (including tricyclic antidepressants), anti-emetic, anticonvulsant and antiepileptic, movement disorder drug, CNS stimulant, barbiturate, benzodiazepine, cyclopyrrolone, dopamine antagonist, antihistamine, anticholinergic, emetic, cannabinoids, 5-HT antagonist, amphetamine, monoamine oxidase inhibitor, lithium salt, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor

For Pain

analgesic, antipyretic, migraine treatment drug
NSAIDs, opioid analgesic

For Musculo-Skeletal Disorders

NSAIDs, muscle relaxant, neuromuscular drug
anticholinesterase, COX-2 inhibitor

For Endocrine problems

androgen, antiandrogen, gonadotropin, corticosteroid, growth hormone, insulin, antidiabetic, thyroid hormones, antithyroid drugs, calcitonin, diphosponate, vasopressin analogues

For the Genito-Urinary System

antifungal, alkalising agent, quinolones, antibiotic, cholinergic, anticholinergic, anticholinesterase, antispasmodic, 5-alpha reductase inhibitor, selective alpha-1 blocker

For Infections and Infestations

antibiotic, antifungal, antileprotic, antituberculous drug, antimalarial, anthelmintic, amoebicide, antiviral, antiprotozoal

For Immunology

vaccine, immunoglobulin, immunosuppressant, interferon, monoclonal antibody

For Nutrition

tonic, iron preparation, electrolyte, parenteral nutritional supplement, vitamins, anti-obesity drug, anabolic drug, haematopoietic drug, food product drug

For the Respiratory System

bronchodilator, NSAIDs, anti-allergic, antitussive, mucolytic, decongestant
corticosteroid, beta-receptor antagonist, anticholinergic, steroid

For the Ear, Nose and Oropharynx

sympathomimetic, antihistamine, anticholinergic, NSAIDs, steroid, antiseptic, local anesthetic, antifungal, cerumenolytic

For the Eye

anti-infective, topical antibiotic, astringent, NSAIDs, miotics, adrenergic neurone blocker, carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, ocular lubricant, mydriatic

For Allergic Disorders

anti-allergic, antihistamine, NSAIDs

For the Skin

emollient, anti-pruritic, antifungal, disinfectant, scabicide, pediculicide, tar products, vitamin A derivatives, vitamin D analogue, keratolytic, abrasive, systemic antibiotic, topical antibiotic, hormones, desloughing agent, exudate absorbant, fibrinolytic, proteolytic, sunscreen, antiperspirant

For Contraception

contraceptive, oral contraceptives, contraceptive devices, spermicide, depot contraceptives

For Obstetrics and Gynaecology

NSAIDs, anticholinergic, haemostatic drug, antifibrinolytic, Hormone Replacement Therapy, bone regulator, beta-receptor agonist, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinising hormone, LHRH
gamolenic acid, gonadotropin release inhibitor, progestogen, dopamine agonist, oestrogen, prostaglandin, gonadorelin, clomiphene, tamoxifen, Diethylstilbestrol

For Neoplastic disorders

cytotoxic drug, sex hormones, aromatase inhibitor, somatostatin inhibitor, recombinant interleukin, GM-CSF, G-CSF, erythropoietin, IL-11

For diagnostics

contrast media

Drugs found to have side effects and no longer used

Diethylstilbestrol

Types of Pharmacological Preparations

Pharmaceuticals may be provided in a number of different pharmacology forms. Probably the most familiar are tablets and capsules, colloquially known as "pills". See route of administration.

See also

antinfective, antiserum, chemist, pharmacist, List of pharmaceutical companies, neuroleptic, doctor´s medical prescription , technology assessment.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Pharmacology."

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Recreational drug use

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Recreational drug use is the use of mind-altering substances for the purpose of altering one's mental state, typically without the supervision of a physician. The use of drugs for spiritual development and exploration is not usually included under the definition of recreational drug use, although the distinction is not always clear. The majority of human societies throughout history have practiced recreational drug use in various forms. Probably the best known example of a recreational drug is alcohol, which most cultures have manufactured in one form or another. As with any drugs, some recreational drugs are addictive, some are harmful to one's health, and some are illegal in most places.

A wide variety of drugs have been employed for recreation at various times through history. By far the most popular recreational drug in modern society is caffeine, accepted by nearly all societies today. Also very popular are alcohol and nicotine in the form of tobacco, present and accepted in most cultures today. Despite relatively recent proscription as an illegal drug in much of the world, marijuana retains its historical popularity.

Many other substances were once commonly used as recreational drugs, but fell from favor for various reasons and are now much less common. Recreational use of opium was once common in Asia, and from there spread to the West, peaking in the 19th century. Cocaine and heroin were sold as patent medicines in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and marketed as treatments for a wide variety of ailments.

Legal aspects

In many cases the possession and use of common recreational drugs violates the law. In some cultures, the use of some commonly prohibited drugs, especially marijuana, is becoming increasingly looked upon as a legitimate and acceptable act of responsible adult behavior, as alcohol has traditionally been viewed. This attitude is most prevalent in western Europe (especially in the Netherlands) and more recently in Canada, where enforcement of extant legal penalties for possession of small amounts of marijuana and other so-called "soft drugs" such as hallucinogenic mushrooms is increasingly ignored or given a low priority by law enforcement officials.

This attitude stands in marked contrast to the official policy of the United States government, which declared a "War on Drugs" (c.f.) under Richard Nixon in 1972 and later intensified under Ronald Reagan. The United States is much more strict about enforcing penalties for soft drug use. The Drug Enforcement Agency, or DEA, is primarily responsible for illegal drug interdiction at the federal level. Despite the application of billions of dollars of taxpayer money to this perceived problem, recreational drug use remains common in the United States, and according to some studies is actually more common than in Europe where the laws are more relaxed. Some theorize that this is because the very prohibition of illegal recreational drugs adds an aura of mystique to their use, and encourages experimentation.

Many societies have abandoned what they feel are unsuccessful attempts to prohibit recreational drugs, and instead turned to a policy of harm reduction by informing users of ways to reduce common risks associated with popular drugs, and providing medical assistance for drug users who wish to stop using drugs. Harm reduction is the official policy of the Netherlands and some areas of Canada such as Vancouver, which have stopped actively prosecuting end users of recreational drugs. Instead, law enforcement efforts focus on capturing illegal dealers of "hard drugs" such as heroin and cocaine, passing out clean needles to IV drug users, and providing medical assistance for addicted users who wish to stop taking drugs.

Popular Recreational Drugs

The most popular recreational drugs worldwide are caffeine, alcohol (ethanol), nicotine, and cannabis (see also hashish and hash oil).

Other substances commonly considered recreational drugs include:

• Amphetamine (and Methamphetamines)
• Ayahuasca
• Bufotenine
• Cocaine (and crack cocaine)
• DMT
• DXM
• Ecstasy
• Ephedrine
• GHB
• Ibogaine
• Khat
• LSD
• Ololiuqui
• Opiates (including heroin, opium, and various painkiller drugs)
• PCP
• Peyote
• Psilocybin (Magic Mushrooms)
• Rufees
• Salvia

See also:

• club drug
• drug paraphenalia
• psychedelic

External Links

• The Good Drugs Guide

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Recreational drug use."

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War on Drugs

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The expression "War on Drugs" refers to a governmental program, or series of programs, intended to suppress the consumption of certain recreational drugs. The term was first used by Richard Nixon in 1972 to describe the United States' programs. Later, President Reagan added the position of drug czar to the Cabinet. Equivalent terms are now used in many other countries as well. There is no known example of such policies successfully eradicating drug use or addiction.

A drug is a chemical which has an effect on the human body. Drugs which are deemed socially, religiously, medically or politically unfit for recreational use are frequently banned. Most countries have a very similar set of prohibited drugs. Some exceptions exist; most notably, Islamic countries mostly prohibit the use of alcohol, while most other states allow at least adults to purchase and consume alcohol. All countries regulate the manufacture, distribution, marketing and sale of some or all drugs, such as by using a prescription system. Only certain drugs are banned with a "blanket prohibition" against all use. However, the prohibited drugs generally continue to be available through the illegal drug trade. Many countries allow a certain amount of personal use of certain drugs, but not sale or manufacture. Some also set a specific amount of a particular drug, above which is ipso jure considered to be evidence of trafficking or sale of the drug.

The War on Drugs utilizes several techniques to achieve its goal of eliminating recreational drug use:

• specialized law enforcement agencies, officers and techniques
• information campaigns to educate the public on the real or perceived dangers of recreational drug use
• streamlined enforcement and evidence-gathering procedures

Legal Provisions in Various Countries

The following frequently used drugs are prohibited or otherwise regulated for recreational use in most countries:

• Adderall
• Alcohol
• Amphetamines
• Cannabis products (e.g. Marijuana, Hashish and hashish oil)
• Coca leaves and derivatives (Cocaine, Crack cocaine)
• Ecstacy
• GHB
• LSD
• Methadone
• Methamphetamines
• Methcathinone
• Nicotine-containing products, such as cigarettes and chewing tobacco
• Opium and opiates (e.g. Heroin, Morphine)
• Oxycontin
• Percocet
• Peyote
• Psilocybin
• Quaalude
• Ritalin
• Valium
• Vicodin

Note: The degree of prohibition against the above drugs varies in many countries; cannabis and hashish, for example, are sometimes legal for personal use, though not sale.

Alcohol is banned only in Islamic countries. The United States banned alcohol in the early part of the 20th century; this was called Prohibition. Tobacco is not illegal in any country.

In countries where alcohol and tobacco are both legal, certain measures are frequently undertaken to discourage use of these drugs. For example, packages of alcohol and tobacco sometimes communicate warnings directed towards the consumer, communicating the potential risks of partaking in the use of the substance. These drugs also frequently have special sin taxes associated with the purchase thereof, in order to recoup the losses associated with public funding for the health problems the use causes in long-term users. Restrictions on advertising also exist in many countries, and the state holds a monopoly on manufacture, distribution, marketing and sale of alcohol and/or tobacco in others.

Frequently, civil rights are lessened for suspected users or traffickants of illict drugs. Critics claim that the War on Drugs has lessened the necessary requirements to search a suspect's dwelling or vehicle, or intercept the suspect's (e-)mail and radio/telephone communication. Procedures related to the investigation and arrest of suspects are often lessened and streamlined to facilitate enforcement.

Sometimes, crimes not directly related to drug use and sale are prohibited. For example, the United States recently brought charges against club owners for maintaining a place of business where a) Ecstacy is known to be frequently consumed; b) paraphernalia associated with the use of Ecstacy is sold and/or widely tolerated (such as glow sticks and pacifiers); and c) "chill-out rooms" are created, where Ecstacy users can cool down (Ecstacy raises the user's blood temperature).

Many countries allow the use of undercover law enforcement officers solely or primarily for the enforcement of laws against recreational drug use. Many of these officers are allowed to commit crimes if it is necessary to maintain the secrecy of the investigation, or in order to collect adequate evidence for a conviction.

The War on Drugs has stimulated the creation of international law enforcement agencies (such as Interpol), mostly in Western countries. This has occurred because most illicit drugs come from Third-World countries.

Drug Prohibition in the United States

The first law outright prohibiting the use of a drug was a San Francisco, California local ordinance which banned the smoking of opium in opium dens in 1875. The inspiration was "many women and young girls, as well as young men of respectable family, were being induced to visit the [Chinese] opium-smoking dens, where they were ruined morally and otherwise." The primary cause of the movement for the law was a moral panic based on a fear of Chinese immigrants and other railroad workers seducing white women with the drug. This was followed by other laws throughout the country, and federal laws which barred Chinese people from trafficking in opium. Though the laws affected the use and distribution of opium by Chinese immigrants, no action was taken against the producers of such products as laudanum, a mixture of opium and alcohol, commonly taken as a panacea by white Americans. The dividing line was usually the manner in which the drug was ingested. Chinese immigrants smoked it, while it was included in various kinds of (generally liquid) medicines for white people. The laws were aimed at smoking opium, but not otherwise ingesting it 1.

Cocaine was prohibited in the first part of the 20th century. Newspapers used terms like "Negro Cocaine Fiends" and "Cocainized Niggers" to drive up sales, causing a nationwide panic about the rape of white women by black men, high on cocaine. Many police forces changed from a .32 caliber to a .38 caliber pistol because the smaller gun was supposedly unable to kill black men when they were high on cocaine.

This was followed by the Harrison Act, which required sellers of opiates and cocaine to get a license. The supporters of the Harrison Act did not support blanket prohibition of the drugs involved 1. This is also true of the later Marijuana Tax Act in 1937. Soon, however, the people who were allowed to issue the licenses did not do so, effectively banning the drugs.

The American judicial system did not initially accept drug prohibition. Prosecutors argued that possessing drugs was a tax violation, as no legal licenses to sell drugs were in existence; hence, a person possessing drugs must have purchased them from an unlicensed source. After some wrangling, this was accepted as federal jurisdiction under the interstate commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution.

1937 saw the passage of the Marijuana Tax Act. Harry Anslinger (Bureau of Narcotics Commissioner) testified in hearings on the subject that the hemp plant needed to be banned because it had a violent "effect on the degenerate races." This specifically referred to Mexican immigrants who had entered the country, seeking jobs during the Great Depression. The law passed quickly and with little debate. The American Medical Association (AMA) protested the law soon after, both on the grounds of actual disagreement with the law and the supporters' lies on the subject; Anslinger and others had claimed the AMA had vocalized support when, in fact, the opposite was true.

Practical actions

The War on Drugs involves action taken against three groups of criminals:

• Manufacturers (whether through chemical synthesis or agriculture)
• Traffickers and dealers
• Users

A War on Drugs is usually run like a modern war with police and other law enforcement officers instead of military personnel. The apparatus prepared for the War is ordinarily organized to face guerrilla situations, armed attacks or counter-attacks and bombings. These tactics include espionage, as undercover agents (spies) are used to infiltrate drug use and trafficking circles.

Investigation on drug trafficking often begins with the recording of unusually frequent deaths by overdose, monitoring financial flows of suspected trafficants, or by finding concrete elements while inspecting for other purposes. For example, a person pulled over for traffic violations may have illicit drugs in his or her vehicle, thus leading to an arrest and/or investigation of the source of the materials. Most investigations into trafficking or manufacturing are fruitless, and casual users remain at a greater risk of arrest, conviction and imprisonment than others.

Arguments for the War on Drugs, in whole or in part

• A state cannot be involved with the distribution of substances the use of which is considered immoral by relevant lots of the population. A substance which is fought because it is unhealthy cannot be produced and distributed with the help of the state, because the goal of the state is to protect citizens' health and not to expose them to risk.
  • If the goal of a state is to protect citizens' health and well-being, drugs should be legalized so that their purity can be monitored (see harm reduction). The health of citizens is not best served by prohibiting drugs; this only increases risk and harm, and reduces health and well-being.
• Recreational use of illicit drugs is unhealthy and dangerous for the user's body. Hence, it should be illegal.
  • Nearly any activity, from driving a car to cleaning the house, can be dangerous. The legalization of drugs can aid in the minimization of the dangers of drug use (see harm reduction). It is worth noting that the effects of marijuana on the mind (included "amotivational syndrome") and body are minimal to nonexistent, especially when compared with other, legal activities 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

  • It is not worthwhile for a law to forbid persons from willingly exposing their own bodies to harm by using drugs, any more than by overeating, bungee-jumping, getting tattoos, or volunteering to work in leprosaria. Obesity is a national epidemic, killing millions every year, but the government has no right to regulate how much citizens eat.
    • The use of some drugs (perhaps only alcohol and tobacco) may be signficantly more dangerous than most of these activities.
• Drugs are addictive 1. Hence, they rob the user of free will in the same sense that slavery does. A drug user can not make an informed and rational decision to continue using drugs because the use of the drug eliminates that user's ability to think logically.
  • Drug users exercised free will when they chose to use drugs; a person has the right to give up his or her own freedom.
  • No drug exists which eliminates free will. It is possible to quit using any drug.
  • Many banned drugs are not addictive, or are significantly less deleterious to free will than legal alcohol or tobacco. Severe physiological addiction has been demonstrated for tobacco (stronger than cocaine), but no strong physiological addiction has been shown for marijuana 1.
• If currently illegal drugs were legalized, dealers would invent new, more dangerous and addictive drugs in order to maintain their profit flow.
  • Any drug with a market can be legalized for personal use and distributed through lawful channels. This may occur a few times, but dealers will quickly learn that they can only waste time and money inventing something that lawful businesses will sell at cheaper prices.
• Drug use is dangerous to persons besides the user, in the rise of health care costs, violence associated with the use of drugs (1, 2), neglect of children by drug-addicted parents, and other third party effects. Drugs should remain illegal to minimize these effects of drug use.
  • Drug legalization would reduce health care costs overall by reducing the probability of overdoses and accidental ingestion of an unintended drug through standardization of drug purity by state-sponsored production and sale. In addition, there is no evidence of prohibition significantly reducing the use of drugs 1, 2; so legalizing them would not raise health care costs significantly.
  • The violence associated with the use of drugs would be greatly decreased if the price was lower, as would certainly happen upon legalization. Most drug-related crime is caused by users attempting to find funding to buy drugs at artificially inflated prices (caused by prohibition raising the risk and cost of creation, transport and sale of drugs). 1
  • There is no clear and obvious third party harm. All examples of such are caused by related activities that can be illegal without blanket prohibition. For example, driving while intoxicated is illegal, while drinking alcohol without driving is not. The harm caused to children by their parents' excessive drug use is criminal insofar as it constitutes child abuse through neglect; drug-specific laws are unneeded. By this logic, alcohol, TV, video games, shopping, cleaning, sex, reading and writing, and virtually any hobby or occupation should be prohibited as some parents may neglect their children in order to focus on having sex, running a business, or building model trains.
• If drugs were legalized, the companies that manufacture and market them would be sued, as Big Tobacco has been sued in the United States.
  • Big Tobacco was sued because the companies involved lied and misrepresented the facts in order to present their product as safe when they knew it was not. It does not have to be this way. Legalization of drugs does not mean that there will be national marketing campaigns encouraging heroin use, as some critics have claimed. Marketing illegal drugs can be totally prohibited, or regulated in varying degrees while not decreasing availability for those who desire to use the drugs.
• The use of soft drugs, such as marijuana, leads to the use of hard drugs (the Gateway Theory).
  • No peer-reviewed scientific study has ever concluded this; many have concluded that the Gateway Theory is clearly untrue, and some have even concluded that marijuana use helps prevent the use of other drugs. 1, 2, 3, 4
• Drug use negatively impacts the economy in the form of users missing work and doing shoddy work.
  • The War on Drugs has not been shown to reduce drug use 1, 2. Hence, legalization would have no effect on this.
  • If a worker does shoddy work, (s)he can be fired.
• If currently illegal drugs are legalized, the Food and Drug Administration will have to be shut down, meaning that all health and safety restrictions on foods and drugs will be eliminated. Massive epidemics of diseases, overdoses and accidental drug interactions will occur. 1
  • This is a meaningless scare tactic with no basis in reality. Legalization does not mean a lack of regulation. Cigarettes come with warnings. Alcoholic beverages are clearly marked with the amount of alcohol. Currently, legal drugs contain a listing of all active and inactive ingredients. Illegal drugs could only be sold legally with ingredients lists, warnings, and purity levels clearly marked. There is no legal or moral reason the Food and Drug Administration would have to be shut down.

Arguments against the War on Drugs, in whole or in part

• Drug use is a victimless crime and hence, should be legal.
  • Victimless crimes should be illegal if they are immoral. Drug use is immoral. Hence, drug use should be illegal.
    • That drug use is immoral can only be based off one set of moral beliefs. For example, it is discriminatory to claim that Judeo-Christian abstinence from intoxication is the correct set of moral beliefs, whereas Native American historic and religious use of peyote 1, 2 and psilocybin 1, is not the correct set of moral beliefs.
• Drug use is a victimless crime and hence, is unenforceable: without a victim to report the occurrence of a crime, law enforcement personnel can not know of every individual instance of the performance of a crime; they are not able to convict the perpetrators of the crimes that they do not know occurred. Therefore, drug use should be legal so that the deleterious effects can be minimized (see harm reduction). 1
  • The fact that the laws can not be fully enforced does not negate the usefulness of such laws. Laws against murder, rape and other crimes will probably never reach a 100% conviction rate either. The War on Drugs has substantially reduced drug use 1, 2 and legalizing drugs would increase drug use 1.
    • Legalizing murder, rape or other crimes would not enable society to minimize the deleterious effects in other ways. This is not true with drug use (see harm reduction).
    • It is not true that the War on Drugs has substantially reduced drug use or availability 1, 2, 3.
  • It is possible to create a drug free society.
    • There are no examples of cultures that included the use of intoxicants and then successfully eliminated the use thereof. There is no indication of a drug free society being possible in the future.
• The War on Drugs increases the profit margin in the sale of drugs 1, hence, legalization will decrease organized and disorganized crime 1.
• The use of recreational drugs has no clear and obvious harmful effect on anyone besides the user (who chooses to accept those risks). The War on Drugs, on the other hand, places non-users' friends and loved ones in jail 1. Hence, the War on Drugs does have clear and obvious harmful effects on third parties.
  • Drug use has harmful effects on third party individuals 1, such as babies born addicted to drugs 1, or traffic accidents caused by intoxication 1, 2.
    • These are all caused by actions other than the ingestion of drugs, such as the use of drugs while pregnant or driving. One can, and usually does, use drugs when neither pregnant nor driving. It is worth noting that the use of cocaine has not been definitively linked to birth defects or mental retardation, but the use of nicotine has 1 as has the use of alcohol. Marijuana has also not been definitively linked to birth defects or mental retardation 1, nor to substantially increased risks of traffic accidents 1, 2.
• Other countries which have experimented with varying degrees of legalization have had positive results 1.
  • No, they have not. 1
• The War on Drugs is hypocritical because only certain drugs are targeted. Other drugs, such as alcohol, caffeine and tobacco are legal (in most parts of the world), yet cause many more problems than currently illegal drugs. Even aspirin is, in many ways, more dangerous than currently illegal drugs. (See here or here for death statistics and here or here for addiction statistics)
  • The legalization of one drug does not mean that all drugs should be legalized.
  • Alcohol 1, caffeine 1 and tobacco 1, 2 use have been accepted parts of social interaction for centuries, while currently illegal drugs have not.
    • This is is simply not true. Cannabis has been socially accepted in many places for millennia 1, 2, 3, 4. Hallucinogens, such as peyote 1, 2 and psilocybin 1, 2, have been part of religious ceremonies in the Americas and elsewhere for thousands of years. Coca leaves (from which cocaine is derived) are still chewed by South American natives with no apparent physiological or psychological addiction or other deleterious effects 1, 2. Opium has also been used for at least two thousand years 1. Cannabis, peyote, psilocybin and coca have probably been used longer than alcohol, as they can be easily harvested and immediately ingested; alcohol requires some knowledge of fermentation, time and patience. The only drugs which do not have a long history of use were only recently invented, such as amphetamines, LSD and Ecstacy. There are, however, natural drugs similar to these (such as LSA, MDA) which have been used for a long time.
  • Aspirin (and other currently legal drugs) can have positive effects, hence the dangers are warranted.
    • Drugs such as marijuana (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and counterpoint: 1, 2), LSD and other hallucinogens 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, heroin (counterpoint: 1) and Ecstacy 1 may also have positive effects if used under certain circumstances. That this is true is not currently known for certain, primarily because drug prohibition has hindered research on the subject 1.
• The prohibition against drug use has boosted black market research on finding new, more powerful drugs that can be transported easier and more safely than existing ones. Because they are more powerful, a smaller amount can be profitable, as well as more dangerous and addictive than older drugs. Hence, drug prohibition has fueled the refinement of heroin (from much less addictive precursors) and the invention of crack cocaine (a cheaper, more addictive and more dangerous derivative of cocaine).
  • A large corporation could do this much more effectively if recreational drugs were legalized.
    • A governmental agency (instead of private business) could manufacture and sell drugs, with a strict prohibition against developing new ones.
    • If a corporation did so, it could be required to prove relative safety and clearly mark all packages with danger warnings. It is much easier to force a few corporations to responsibly develop and market drugs than a vast, underground system of individual drug dealers who have no reason not to maximize profits at all costs, as there is no legal method of developing recreational drugs.
• The War on Drugs leads to police corruption, by injecting huge profits into the black market. This inevitably leads to bribery 1, 2.
  • We should hire more moral police officers.
    • The huge profits of the illegal drug market make this impossible. With so much money, drug traffickers and dealers will always be able to bribe some police officers. Often, the bribery extends beyond circumventing drug laws but also to related activities, including murder. The profits to be raised by a police officer selling drugs found in others' possessions (and confiscated without making an arrest or official report) and/or accepting bribes makes the position attractive to some people. In effect, the War on Drugs does and always will attract corrupt people to the ranks of law enforcement agencies.
• Drug dealers will sell to anyone, including children. Merchants who legally sell alcohol and tobacco are not allowed to sell to children. Many high school students report that it is easier to obtain blanket illegal drugs than alcohol and tobacco. Hence, legalizing drugs will help keep more dangerous and addictive drugs from minors, for whom the deleterious effects are greater 1.
  • Legalizing drugs will send a message to children that drug use is acceptable.
    • This is no more true than saying that the legal status of weapons sends a message to children that murder is acceptable.
    • Parents are currently expected to explain the dangers of using legal drugs such as alcohol and tobacco, as well as frequently abused legal drugs, such as Oxycontin, Valium, and morphine. If they can do so with these drugs, they can do so with marijuana, cocaine, or heroin.
• The War on Drugs disproportionately affects the poor and members of racial and ethnic minorities (in the United States). 1, 2, 3
  • This does not change the reasoning behind the laws. Drug laws should be enforced more fairly.
    • This may not be possible. The War on Drugs was founded on racism in the United States. Opium (a heroin precursor) prohibition began to target Chinese immigrants. Cocaine prohibition began to target African-Americans. Marijuana prohibition began to target Mexican immigrants. LSD prohibition began to target black and white leftist activists.
• The War on Drugs has led to a decrease in civil liberties. Previously illegal searches and seizures, confiscations, wiretaps, and other police actions have been legitimized out of a desire to use them against drug smugglers or dealers. 1, 2, 3, 4)
  • This is not true.
  • This is true, but is worth it for the benefit of the health and safety of non-drug-abusing members of society.
    • The curtailment of civil liberties does not make anyone healthier or more safe. Unfair police tactics currently used against drug dealers, traffickers, and users could be easily used against people of political, religious, or ethnic minorities.
• The United States, where drug laws are strictly enforced, has high rates of drug use as well as an astronomical number of its own citizens in jail. 1, 2
  • This is because the War on Drugs is working. These people have committed crimes and harmed our polity with their actions, and thus belong in jail.
    • Any definition of a policy "working" which involves rendering such a large proportion of our citizenry into prisoners and ex-convicts (many of whom lose the right to vote) is incompatible with democracy.
• The War on Drugs has led to morally questionable activities by the government (in the United States). For example, governmental agencies use taxpayer funds to build support for the War on Drugs. See here for an example of taxpayer funds supporting the creation of a website about a taxpayer-funded conference on how to drum up support for continued prohibition and to successfully argue against legalization proponents, many of whom involuntarily paid for the website and conference. This would not be accepted if the federal government were using public funds to pay for pro-life commercials or advertisements for Republican candidates, and should not be acceptable for any issue. For another example of dubious morality, see here for an explanation of public funding being secretly paid to TV corporations in exchange for the placement of anti-drug messages on certain television shows. Secretive propaganda is always morally wrong and duplicitous.
• The current blanket prohibition of both hard and soft drugs (compare ultra-addictive and dangerous heroin to relatively benign marijuana) lumps both in the same category in the minds of impressionable children. Drug dealers stand to make greater profit off hard drugs, and so will attempt to convince users to switch from soft to hard drugs. Separating the markets through legalization will prevent this. See this to compare the numbers between the Netherlands (where the hard and soft drugs markets are separated) to the United States (where they are not).
• Drug legalization will enable users to be certain that they are receiving the correct drug. Currently, drugs are often laced with adulterants for various reasons (to aid in trafficking, to increase the effects, etc). Often, these adulterants are the cause of the primary dangers of use of the drug (as, for example, with Ecstacy). In addition, drug users can not know the purity of such drugs as heroin or cocaine; often overdoses are a result of underestimating the purity. These dangers would be eliminated if drugs were legalized and packages purchased were clearly marked with the purity of the ingredients, as well as a complete list of which ingredients were present.
  • The dangers of drug use are well-known. If a user chooses to partake in a risky activity and dies, it is the user's fault.
    • Willful neglect of the safety of drug users does not convince legalization proponents that the neglective party have their best interests in mind.

See also: perverse incentives

External links:

• Comprehensive survey by The Economist on Illicit Drugs and Public Policy
• Salon article on the War on Drugs
• Article by Milton Friedman
• http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/basicfax.htm
• War on Drugs clock
• The Consumers Union Report - Licit and Illicit Drugs

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "War on Drugs."

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Thumbnail	Description & Credit	Thumbnail	Description & Credit
	Pictured is an adult black male patient and a nurse wearing a lab coat. She is testing him for high blood pressure and they are both looking at the indication on the measuring instrument. The patient may require the use of a drug to control his high blood pressure. Credit: Linda Bartlett (photographer).		Animal studies are necessary to confirm in vitro results before trials in human beings can be considered. One new approach is to enclose human cancer cells in microscopic capsules and grow them in laboratory-bred mice, which are then treated with a test drug. Credit: Mike Mitchell (photographer).
	Shown is close up of surgeons' hands in an operating room with a "beam of light" traveling along fiber optics for photodynamic therapy. Its source is a laser beam which is split at two different stages to create the proper "therapeutic wavelength". A patient would be given a photo sensitive drug (photofrin) containing cancer killing substances which are absorbed by cancer cells. During the surgery, the light beam is positioned at the tumor site, which then activates the drug that kills the cancer cells, thus photodynamic therapy (PDT). Credit: John Crawford (photographer).		The image shows cisplatin crystals, which is a platinum compound, and used as a chemotherapy drug. Credit: Larry Ostby (photographer).
	Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a procedure to treat cancer. Patients are injected with a photosensitizer which is a light sensitive drug selectively retained by cancer cells. When exposed to laser light, the photosensitizer in the cancer cells produces a toxic reaction which destroys the tumor. This photo shows an argon-ion laser, the first component of the argon pumped-dye laser (630nm red). This argon-ion laser emits blue-green light at 488/514 nm, and is used to excite a dye in the second component, the dye laser head, where the wavelength is changed to 630nm red. Different photosensitizers absorb light at different wavelengths. Some absorb light most efficiently in the blue light region of the spectrum around 400 nanometers(nm) with lesser absorption in the green and red light range. However, red light at 630 nm penetrates deeper into the tumor tissue (3-8 mm) than green or blue light. For this reason, the majority of PDT work has used 630 nm light. See artwork: GA-17. Credit: Unknown photographer/artist.		The photo shows the procedure of photodynamic therapy. In this therapy, patients are injected with a light-activated drug called a photosensitizer which makes cells in their body sensitive to light. The drug is selectively retained by cancer cells as compared with normal tissue. Doctors then use fiber-optic probes to expose the cancer to laser light. This activates the photosensitizer and produces a toxic reaction that destroys the tumor without irreparably damaging the surrounding normal cells There is a close-up of just the hands. See artwork: GA-17. Credit: John Crawford (photographer).
	Seen is the drug Reserpine in tablet form being counted out to fill a prescription in a pharmacy. Credit: Linda Bartlett (photographer).		Usually, erythema nodosum is a secondary sequela of another disease process, or due to a drug hypersensitivity reaction that manifests itself as tender red bumps on the skin. Credit: CDC.
	Lab technician performing drug susceptibility testing. Credit: CDC.		Beginning in January 1998, the B vitamin folic acid will be added to enriched bread, flour, cornmeal, rice, pasta, and other products, according to a 1996 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulation. P. Credit: USDA ARS News; photo by Scott Bauer..
Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.

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"Drugstore" by Luciano Guedes Commentary: "Some products in a drug store."	"Drugs, Goodwin Drugs" by Marcus Buckner Commentary: "An old drug store in sign in downtown Batesville, Arkansas."
Source: photographs selected by the editor, with permission from the photographers.

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Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.

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Source: compiled by the editor from Icon Group International, Inc.

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