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Canon

Definition: Canon

Canon

Noun

1. A rule or especially body of rules or principles generally established as valid and fundamental in a field or art or philosophy: "the neoclassical canon"; "canons of polite society".

2. A priest who is a member of a cathedral chapter.

3. (North America) a ravine formed by a river in an area with little rainfall.

4. A contrapuntal piece of music in which a melody in one part is imitated exactly in other parts.

5. A complete list of saints that have been recognized by the Roman Catholic Church.

6. A collection of books accepted as holy scripture especially the books of the Bible recognized by any Christian church as genuine and inspired.

Source: WordNet 1.7.1 Copyright © 2001 by Princeton University. All rights reserved.
 

Date "canon" was first used in popular English literature: sometime before 1321. (references)

 

Specialty Definition: Canon

DomainDefinition

Bible

Canon This word is derived from a Hebrew and Greek word denoting a reed or cane. Hence it means something straight, or something to keep straight; and hence also a rule, or something ruled or measured. It came to be applied to the Scriptures, to denote that they contained the authoritative rule of faith and practice, the standard of doctrine and duty. A book is said to be of canonical authority when it has a right to take a place with the other books which contain a revelation of the Divine will. Such a right does not arise from any ecclesiastical authority, but from the evidence of the inspired authorship of the book. The canonical (i.e., the inspired) books of the Old and New Testaments, are a complete rule, and the only rule, of faith and practice. They contain the whole supernatural revelation of God to men. The New Testament Canon was formed gradually under divine guidance. The different books as they were written came into the possession of the Christian associations which began to be formed soon after the day of Pentecost; and thus slowly the canon increased till all the books were gathered together into one collection containing the whole of the twenty-seven New Testament inspired books. Historical evidence shows that from about the middle of the second century this New Testament collection was substantially such as we now possess. Each book contained in it is proved to have, on its own ground, a right to its place; and thus the whole is of divine authority. The Old Testament Canon is witnessed to by the New Testament writers. Their evidence is conclusive. The quotations in the New from the Old are very numerous, and the references are much more numerous. These quotations and references by our Lord and the apostles most clearly imply the existence at that time of a well-known and publicly acknowledged collection of Hebrew writings under the designation of "The Scriptures;" "The Law and the Prophets and the Psalms;" "Moses and the Prophets," etc. The appeals to these books, moreover, show that they were regarded as of divine authority, finally deciding all questions of which they treat; and that the whole collection so recognized consisted only of the thirty-nine books which we now posses. Thus they endorse as genuine and authentic the canon of the Jewish Scriptures. The Septuagint Version (q.v.) also contained every book we now have in the Old Testament Scriptures. As to the time at which the Old Testament canon was closed, there are many considerations which point to that of Ezra and Nehemiah, immediately after the return from Babylonian exile. (See BIBLE ¯T0000580, EZRA, QUOTATIONS.). Source: Easton's 1897 Bible Dictionary.

Literature

Canon The canons used to be those persons who resided in the buildings contiguous to the cathedral, employed either in the daily service, or in the education of the choristers. The word is Greek, and means a measuring rod, the beam of a balance; then, a roll or register containing the names of the clergy who are licensed to officiate in a cathedral church.
Canon. A divine or ecclesiastical law.
"Or that the Everlasting had not flxed
His canon 'gainst self-slaughter."
Shakespeare: Hamlet, i. 2. Source: Brewer's Dictionary.

Mining

See:canyon. (references)

Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Specialty Definition: Biblical canon

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

A Biblical canon is an exclusive list of books written during the formative period of the Jewish or Christian faiths; the leaders of these communities believed them to be inspired by God or to express the authoritative history of the relationship between God and his people (although there may have been secondary considerations as well).

There are differences between different Christian groups, as well as between Christians and Jews, over which books meet the standards for canonization. The different criteria for, and the process of, canonization for each community dictates what members of that community consider to be "the Bible."

See Bible and Tanach

for a comparison

At this time, all of the below canons are considered to be "closed"; that is, most adherents of the various groups do not think that additional books can be added to the Bible. By contrast, an "open" canon would be a list books which is considered to be open to additional books, should they meet the other criteria. Each of the canons described below was considered open for a time before being closed. Generally, the closure of the canon reflects a belief from the faith community that the formative period of the religion has ended, and that texts from that period can be collected into an authoritative body of work. Certain sects (such as the Latter-day Saints) which accept the Bible as part of their formally adopted sacred literature may also include other works in the totality of their canon, but they generally do not consider those other works to be part of the Bible. See Sacred text for examples.

The relationship between the closing of the canon and beliefs about the nature of revelation may be subject to different interpretations. Some believe that the closing of the canon signals the end of a period of divine revelation; others believe that revelation continues even after the canon is closed, either through individuals or through the leadership of a divinely sanctioned religious institution. Among those who believe that revelation continues after the canon is closed, there is further debate about what kinds of revelation is possible, and whether the revelation can add to established theology.

Jewish canon

Evidence suggests that the process of canonization of the Hebrew Bible occurred between 200 BCE and 200 CE. The first suggestion of a Jewish Canon comes in the second century BCE. II Maccabees 2:13 describes Nehemiah (around 400 BCE) as having "founded a library and collected books about the kings and prophets, and the writings of David, and letters of kings about votive offerings." (Maccabees also suggests that Ezra brought the Torah back from Babylon to Israel.) Both I and II Maccabees suggest that Judas Maccabee likewise collected sacred books. They do not, however, suggest that the canon was at that time closed; moreover, it is not clear that these sacred books were identical to those that later became part of the canon.

Additional evidence of a collection of sacred scripture similar to portions of the Hebrew Bible comes from Sirach (dating from from 180 BCE), which includes a list of names of men, in the same order as is found in the Torah and the Prophets, and which includes the names of some men mentioned in the Writings. Based on this list of names, some scholars have conjectured that the author, Jesus ben Sirach had access to, and considered authoritative, the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve minor prophets. His list excludes names from Ruth, Song of Songs, Esther, Daniel, and Job, suggesting that he either did not have access to these books, or did not consider them authoritative. In the prologue to the Greek translation of ben Sirach's work, his grandson mentions both the Torah and the Prophets, as well as a third group of books which is not yet named as Writings. Based on this evidence, some scholars have suggested that by the second century BCE the books of the Torah and Prophets were considered canonical, but that the books of the Writings were not.

The Septuagint (LXX) translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, probably in the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE, provided a standard text for the non-Hebrew-speaking world. In this text the Torah and Prophets are established as canonical, but again, Writings have not yet been canonized (some editions of the Septuagint include, for instance I-IV Maccabees or the 151st Psalm, while others do not include them).

Scrolls discovered at caves near Qumran refer to the Torah and Prophets, and suggest that these portions of the Bible had already been canonized before 68 CE. A scroll that contains all or parts of 41 Biblical psalms, although not in the same order as in the current Book of Psalms, and which includes eight texts not found in the Book of Psalms, suggests that the Book of Psalms had not yet been canonized.

In the first century CE, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria discussed sacred books, but made no mention of a tripartite division of the Bible. Similarly, the Christian Bible refers to the Torah and the Prophets, but not to the Writings. Josephus, however, refers to sacred scriptures divided into three parts: the five books of the Torah; thirteen books of the Prophets, and four other books of hymns and wisdom. The 22 books mentioned by Josephus does not correspond to the number of books in the Canon. Some scholars have suggested that he considered Ruth part of Judges, and Lamentations part of Jeremiah. Other scholars suggest that at the time Josephus wrote, such books as Esther and Ecclesiastes, were not yet considered canonical.

Significantly, Josephus characterizes the 22 books as canonical because they were divinely inspired; he mentions other historical books that were not divinely inspired and that therefore do not belong in the canon.

The Jewish canon was ultimately established by the Pharisees, who dominated Judaism after 70 CE. The Mishnah, compiled by the second century CE, describes some of the debate that occurred prior to the closing of the canon (specifically, concerning the Writings). Yadaim 3:5 calls attention to the debate over Song of Songs and Ecclesiastes. Megillat Taanit, in a discussion of days when fasting is prohibited but that are not noted in the Bible, mentions the holiday of Purim, which suggests that the book of Esther was not at that time considered canonical.

The first reference to a 24 book Jewish canon is found in II Esdras 14, probably written in the first half of the second century CE. This text characterizes the 24 books as books to be read by all; it also mentions 70 books that are holy but esoteric.

The Pharisees also debated the status of these extra-canonical books; Rabbi Akiba felt that those who read them would not share in the afterlife (Sanhedrin 10:1).

Samaritan canon

A small community in Palestine continues to include only the Torah and the book of Joshua in their canon.

Christian canon

New Testament

When Christianity began, it had no well-defined set of scriptures outside of the Septuagint and relied on the oral tradition of what Jesus Christ had said and done, as reported by the apostles and other followers. Even after the Gospels were written and began circulating, some Christians preferred the oral Gospel as told by people they trusted (e.g. Papias, c. 125).

By the end of the 1st century, the letters of Paul were collected and circulated, and they were known to Clement of Rome (c. 95), Ignatius (died 117), and Polycarp (c. 115).

The first person to propose a definitive, exclusive canon of Christian scriptures was Marcion of Sinope, c. 150. He accepted only the Gospel of Luke, and ten of Paul's epistles. He rejected the entire Old Testament, the other three Gospels, the book of Acts and the epistles of Peter and John. From the books he did accept, he removed any passages that connected Christianity with Judaism. This was because Marcion believed that the God of the Jews who gave them the Law was an entirely different god than the Supreme God who sent Jesus Christ and inspired the New Testament scriptures. By editing the books he accepted, he thought he was removing judaizing corruptions and recovering the 'original' inspired words of the text. Marcion's canon and theology were soundly rejected as heretical; however, he forced the Church to consider which texts were scriptural and why. Marcion spread his beliefs widely; they became known as Marcionism, a form of Gnostic Christianity.

The Diatessaron was a one volume harmony of the four Gospels, translated and compiled by Tatian into Syriac c. 173. In Syriac speaking churches, it effectively served as the only New Testament scripture until Paul's epistles were added during the third century. Some authorities believe that the book of Acts was also used in Syrian churches alongside the Diatessaron. The Diatessaron was eventually replaced in the 5th century by the Peshitta, which contains a translation of the separate books of the New Testament, except for 2 John, 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude and Revelation.

Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 185) vigorously defended the notion that there were exactly four Gospels, no more and no less, as a touchstone of orthodoxy. He pointed out that it was illogical to reject Acts of the Apostles but accept the Gospel of Luke, as both were from the same author. This was crucial to refuting Marcion's anti-judaism, as Acts gives honor to James, Peter and Paul alike. At the time, Jewish Christians tended to honor James (a prominent Christian in Jerusalem described in the New Testament as an "apostle" and "pillar", and by Eusebius and other church historians as the first Bishop of Jerusalem) but not Paul, while Gentiles tended to honor Paul more than James.

The earliest known listing of canonical books is the Muratorian fragment, usually dated at 170 (based on an internal reference to Pope Pius I) but possibly as late as the early 4th century. This partial canon lists four gospels and the Pauline epistles, as well as two books of apocalypse, one of John another of Peter (the latter of which it notes is not often read in the churches). The definitive declaration of the canon was not until the Council of Carthage in 397. The inclusion of some books in the New Testament was debated: Epistle to Hebrews, James, 2 John, 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude and Revelation. Grounds for debate included the question of authorship of these books; suitability for use; and how widely they were actually being used. 2 Peter is the most weakly attested of all the books in the Christian canon. One concern regarding the book of Revelation at that time is that it was already being interpreted in a wide variety of controversial ways. Virtually all Christians have accepted and continue to accept the same 27 books as the New Testament, except for those Syriac-speaking Christians who continue to use the Peshitta.

Old Testament

Eastern Orthodox OT canon

The Christians tended to use the Septuagint, a Greek language version of the Jewish scriptures, and had more books in circulation. In the New Testament, most but not all Old Testament quotations seem to follow the Septuagint. In the Old Testament, the deuterocanonical books included are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch, I-II Maccabees, and Sirach (a.k.a. Eclesiasticus), as well as parts of Esther and Daniel written originally in Greek. Some manuscripts of the Septuagint also include III-IV Maccabees and 151 Psalms instead of just 150, and consequently some Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions include these as well.

Roman Catholic OT canon

When St. Jerome translated the Bible into Latin, producing the Vulgate bible, he argued for the "Veritas Hebraica", or the acceptance of the Jewish canon of the Old Testament. At the insistence of the Pope, however, he added translations for the doubtful books. Over the years, the feeling in favor of this group of "doubtful" books grew, until at the Council of Florence (1451), this list was defined as canonical. The Council of Florence, however, was not binding on the whole Church. The Catholic Church finally settled the question of the Canon in the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The Old Testament books that had been in doubt were termed "deuterocanonical", not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval.

Protestant OT canon

The Protestant churches however rejected these books (though how strongly they are rejected varies from one Protestant group to another). At the time of the Reformation, Martin Luther eliminated the "doubtful" books from his Old Testament, terming them "Apocrypha". He also argued unsuccessfully for the elimination of certain New Testament books. Among these was the Letter of James, which he called the "Epistle of Straw". As a result Catholics and Protestants continue to use different canons, which differ in respect to the Old Testament: the Protestant Old Testament is identical to the Jewish canon, while the Catholic Old Testament contains in addition 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, Tobit, Judith, additions to Daniel and Esther, Sirach (also called Ecclesiasticus), and the Wisdom of Solomon. There is some evidence that the first decision to omit these books entirely from the Bible was made by Protestant laity rather than clergy. Bibles dating from shortly after the Reformation have been found whose tables of contents included the entire Roman Catholic canon, but which did not actually contain the disputed books, leading some historians to think that the workers at the printing presses took it upon themselves to omit them.

Not in the above-mentioned canons

Furthermore, there are many books similar in style to the books of the Bible and dating from the same period, which are accepted by neither Protestants nor Catholics. Catholics call these books Apocrypha, while Protestants call them "Pseudepigrapha", reserving the term Apocrypha for the Catholic Deuterocanon. These books include 3 and 4 Maccabees (though many Orthodox include these), and 1 and 2 Esdras. A few Oriental Orthodox churches use some of these books: e.g. the Ethiopian Orthodox Church's canon includes Jubilees, 1 Enoch, the Shepherd of Hermas, 1 Clement and the Acts of Paul.

See Books of the Bible for a listing.

Selected biblically contemporary or influenced works till the 2nd century

Modern or Mediaeval 'Pseudepigrapha'

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Canon

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The word canon has several meanings in different areas.

In religion

A canon in one sense is a rule adopted by a Council of the Catholic or Eastern Orthodox churches. From Greek kanon, for rule or measure. See canon law.

It is also a rank in the Christian church; canons are priests who are specifically attached to a cathedral and have responsibility for some aspect of its running.

In another sense, a canon is a list of books accepted by a religion as authoritative or divinely inspired. The term was originally Christian, referring to books declared divinely inspired by the canons of Church councils. The term has however come to be extended to other religions as well with compound scriptures, thus one can speak for instance of the Pali canon in Buddhism. See biblical canon for a discussion of the canon of Christianity.

In one final sense, a canon is a member of religious group or a person holding a position of authority (prelate) in some Christian faiths.

Canon is also what is prescribed as the only correct way to paint an icon or a frescoe.

In literature and art

In usually academic, non-religious contexts, the so-called Western canon is often spoken of. This is a body of literature and art recognized as definitive of Western civilization.

In non-academic, non-religious contexts, canon is used to describe works of fiction that represent "official" records of events in particular fictional settings. For example, in Star Trek, the various live-action television series and movies are considered to be canon whereas the Star Trek novels and cartoon series are not. Events which occur in non-canon works of fiction are not considered a part of the continuity of the rest of the series, and can be disregarded freely by authors and readers alike when considering the setting as a whole. The criteria for deciding whether a particular work of fiction is considered to be canonical for a particular setting or not varies, sometimes being dictated by a particular authority (often a copyright or trademark holder) and sometimes being decided by informal consensus among those who care. Harry Potter fans consider only things stated by J. K. Rowling, herself, canon. Therefore the Harry Potter books, Quidditch Through the Ages and Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them are considered canon, whereas the films and other material released by Warner Bros are not.

In music

Definition

In music, a canon is a contrapuntal composition that employs a melody with one or more imitations of the melody played after a given duration (e.g. quarter rest, one measure, etc.). The initial melody is called the leader, while the imitative melody is called the follower which is played in a different voice. The follower must be created from the leader by being either an exact replication of the rhythms and intervals of the leader, or a transformation such as those listed in "types of canons" (below). The simplest and most familiar examples are rounds such as Row, Row, Row Your Boat.

History

The canon has its origins in Italy and France and was originally called caccia, the latin word for 'chase'. The Old French canon, which meant 'leaned', was taken from the Greek kanon for a rule or law, which eventually came to mean 'an accepted rule' in English. The most rigid and ingenius forms of canon are not strictly concerned with pattern but also with content. During the period of the Netherland School (1450-1500), canon as a contrapuntal art form received its greatest development, while the Roman School gave it its most complete application.

Types of canons

Canons are classified by various traits: the number of voices, the interval at which each succesive voice is transposed in relation to the preceding voice, whether voices are inverse, retrograde, or retrograde-inverse; the temporal distance between each voice, whether the intervals of the second voice are exactly those of the original or if they are adjusted to fit the diatonic scale, and the tempo of succesive voices. However, canons may use more than one of the above methods.

A canon of two voices may be called a canon in two, similarly a canon of x voices would be called a canon in x. This terminology may be used in combination with a similar terminology for the interval between each voice, different from the terminology in the following paragraph.

An interval canon imitates the leader at any interval other than the octave or unison (e.g. canon at the second, fifth, seventh, etc.). If the follower imitates the precice interval quality of the leader, then it is called an exact canon; if the follower imitates the interval number (but not the quality), it is called a diatonic canon.

The follower may be a contrapuntal derivation of the leader.

In a crab canon, also known as as cancrizans, the follower accompanies the leader backward (in retrograde). In a mensuration canon (also known as proportional canon), the follower imitates the leader by some rhythmic proportion. The follower may double the rhythmic values of the leader (augmentation or sloth canon) or it may cut the rhythmic proportions in half (diminution canon). Phasing involves the application of modulating rhythmic proportions according to a sliding scale. The cancrizans, and often the mensuration canon, take exception to the rule that the follower must start later than the leader.

An inverted canon (also called canon in contrary motion) moves the follower in contrary motion to the leader. Where the leader would go down a fifth, the follower goes up, and vice versa. A sub-order of canon in contrary motion, "mirror," maintains the precise quality of each interval.

The most familiar of the canons might be the perpetual/infinite canon. As the canon arrives at the end it can begin again; e.g. "Three Blind Mice". Additional types include the spiral canon, accompanied canon, and double or triple canon.

Contemporary canons

The most popular canons heard today are from the Baroque period, such as Johann Pachelbel's Canon in D (Pachelbel's Canon)or every third variation in Bach's Goldberg Variations. More recently Conlon Nancarrow has written complex tempo or mensural canons, mostly for the player piano as they are extremely difficult to play. Henryk Górecki's Third Symphony begins with an extensive eight voice canon on the strings. Steve Reich discovered a process he calls phasing which is a canon with variable distance between the voices. Many popular recording artists have found success by sampling portions of famous canons in their compositions.

External Link

In photography

Canon is also the name of a Japanese company that specialises in imaging and optical products.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Canon."

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Canon (company)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Canon, headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, is a Japanese company that specialises in imaging and optical products, marketing of cameras and computer printers.

The company was founed in 1933 with the name 精機光学研究所 (Seiki-kougaku laboratory or Precision Optical Instruments Laboratory) by the co-founder Yoshida Goro and his brother-in-law Uchida Saburo, aided by Takeshi Mitarai, a close friend of Uchida. Its original purpose was to research into the development of quality cameras. [1]

The official Japanese name of the company is キヤノン (not キャノン).

External link

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Canon (company)."

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Canon law

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Canon law is the law of the Roman Catholic, Anglican and Eastern Orthodox churches. A canon is a rule adopted by a council; these canons formed the foundation of canon law. (From Greek kanon, for rule or measure). In the Anglican church, the official Church of England, the Ecclesiastical Courts that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage still have jurisdiction of certain church related matters; their jurisdiction dates back to the middle ages. In contrast to the other courts of England the law used in ecclesiastical matters is a civil law system, not common law.

In the Roman Catholic church, the canons of the councils were supplemented with decrees of the Popes, which were gathered together into collections called decretals.

The Eastern church is generally much less legalistic, and treats many of the canons more as guidelines than as absolute laws, adjusting them to cultural and other local circumstances.

In the 20th century, the Roman Catholic Church began attempting to codify canon law, which two millennia of development had become a complex and difficult system of interpretation and cross referencing. The first code of canon law was published in 1917. A revised code was published in 1983. Canon law within the Catholic Church is a fully developed legal system, with all the familiar trappings of courts (including lawyers); the highest degree of education in canon law is the J.C.D. (Juris Canonis Doctor, Doctor of Canon Law).

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Canon law."

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Canon, Georgia

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Canon is a city located in Franklin County, Georgia. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 755.

Geography


Canon is located at 34°20'44" North, 83°6'31" West (34.345576, -83.108741)1. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 8.2 km² (3.2 mi²). 8.2 km² (3.2 mi²) of it is land and none of it is covered by water.

Demographics


As of the census of 2000, there are 755 people, 315 households, and 221 families residing in the city. The population density is 91.7/km² (237.5/mi²). There are 361 housing units at an average density of 43.8/km² (113.5/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 94.97% White, 2.52% African American, 0.13% Native American, 0.26% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.66% from other races, and 1.46% from two or more races. 1.19% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 315 households out of which 27.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.7% are married couples living together, 12.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 29.8% are non-families. 27.3% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.40 and the average family size is 2.88. In the city the population is spread out with 22.1% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 26.5% from 25 to 44, 28.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 38 years. For every 100 females there are 93.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 94.1 males. The median income for a household in the city is $21,845, and the median income for a family is $24,375. Males have a median income of $25,446 versus $18,375 for females. The per capita income for the city is $12,855. 26.6% of the population and 22.2% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 33.0% are under the age of 18 and 25.2% are 65 or older.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Canon, Georgia."

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Morgan's Canon

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Coined by 19th-century British psychologist C. Lloyd Morgan, Morgan's Canon (sometimes called Lloyd Morgan's Canon or Morgan's Canon of Interpretation) remains a fundamental precept of comparative (animal) psychology. It states that:

In no case may we interpret an action as the outcome of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale.

Morgan was reacting to excessively anthropomorphic interpretation of animal behavior, specifically the anecdotal approach of George Romanes. D.A. Dewsbury in Comparative psychology in the twentieth century calls Morgan's Canon "[p]erhaps, the most quoted statement in the history of comparative psychology", which Frans de Waal echoes in The Ape and the Sushi Master: "perhaps the most quoted statement in all of psychology".

In 1903, Morgan added a revised version of the Canon:

In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes, if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development.

External links

Interpretation of Morgan's Canon is not without controversy; see:

(Morgan's original Canon appears at 53 Morgan, 1894; the revised canon at 59 Morgan, 1903.)

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Morgan's Canon."

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Round

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

For rounding in mathematics see significant figure and see also Cartridge (weaponry). A round is a musical composition in which two or more voices sing exactly the same melody, beginning at different times. Row, Row, Row Your Boat is a well known children's round for 4 voices.

When the voices enter at different pitches, the composition is a canon, and still more complicated pieces are fuguess.

The oldest surviving canon in English is Sumer Is Icumen In, which is for 4 voices, plus 2 bass voices singing a ground (that is a never changing repeating part). The first published rounds in English were printed by Thomas Ravenscroft in 1609; Three Blind Mice appears in this collection, although in a somewhat different form from today's children's round.

Three Blinde Mice,
three Blinde Mice,
Dame Iulian,
Dame Iulian,
The Miller and his merry olde Wife,
shee scrapte her tripe licke thou the knife.

Many of the rounds printed by Ravenscroft also appear in a 1580 manuscript (KC 1), and several are mentioned in Shakespeare's plays, so these little ditties seem to have been quite popular.

For further reading:

http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/ravenscroft/

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Round."

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Western canon

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The neutrality of this article is disputed.

Western canon is a term used to describe a canon of books and art, and specifically a set with very loose boundaries of books and other art that, in general, have been most influential in shaping Western culture. The selection of a canon is important in educational perennialism.

The process of listmaking -- defining the boundaries of the canon -- is endless. One of the notable attempts in the English-speaking world was the Great Books of the Western World program that grew out of the curriculum at the University of Chicago developed in the middle third of the 20th century. University president Robert Hutchins and his collaborator Mortimer Adler developed a program that offered reading lists, books, and organizational strategies for reading clubs to the general public.

Since at least the 1960s there has been an intensely political debate over the nature and status of the canon. It has been attacked as a compendium of books mainly by "Dead White European Males" that do not represent the viewpoints of other people (i.e., most people in the world). Others, notably Alan Bloom in his 1987 book 'The Closing of the American Mind', have fought back vigorously.

Authors such as Yale Professor of Humanities Harold Bloom have spoken strongly in favor of the canon, and in general the canon remains as a represented idea in most institutions, though its implications continue to be debated heavily.

Works which are commonly included in the canon:

Works of fiction

Epic poems

Other poetry

Drama

The novel

Pre-19th century

19th century

20th century

The conspicuous absence of works not generally considered mainstream literature should be noted here (e.g. crime fiction, science fiction), in addition to recently published works.

Non-fiction works

Religion

Science

Philosophy

Economics

Politics

History

Authors whose works which are commonly included in the canon: Please keep this list unless the list of works becomes sufficient to render it superfluous.) (Also for authors whose entire corpus has been influential.)

(or move to book list once satisfied the appropriate works have been entered

Works which directly address the canon (pro or con):

See also

External links

''

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Western canon."

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Abbreviations & Acronyms: Canon

The following table is compiled from various sources, across various languages. When English abbreviations or acronyms come from a non-English source, this is noted.
EntrySourceExpressionField
CaPSLEnglishCanon Printing System LanguageN/A

Source: compiled by the editor, based on several corpora (additional references).

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Synonym: Canon

Synonym: canyon (n). (additional references)

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Synonyms within Context: Canon

ContextSynonyms within Context (source: adapted from Roget's Thesaurus).

Clergy

Dignitaries of the church; ecclesiarch, hierarch; ebdomarius; eminence, reverence, elder, primate, metropolitan, archbishop, bishop, prelate, diocesan, suffragan, dean, subdean, archdeacon, prebendary, canon, rural dean, rector, parson, vicar, perpetual curate, residentiary, beneficiary, incumbent, chaplain, curate; deacon, deaconess; preacher, reader, lecturer; capitular; missionary, propagandist, Jesuit, revivalist, field preacher.

Cenobite, conventual, abbot, prior, monk, friar, lay brother, beadsman, mendicant, pilgrim, palmer; canon regular, canon secular; Franciscan, Friars minor, Minorites; Observant, Capuchin, Dominican, Carmelite; Augustinian; Gilbertine; Austin Friars, Black Friars, White Friars, Gray Friars, Crossed Friars, Crutched Friars; Bonhomme, Carthusian, Benedictine, Cistercian, Trappist, Cluniac, Premonstatensian, Maturine; Templar, Hospitaler; Bernardine, Lorettine, pillarist, stylite.

Interval

Gorge, defile, ravine, canon, crevasse, abyss, abysm; gulf; inlet, frith, strait, gully; pass; furrow; abra; barranca, barranco; clove, gulch, notch; yawning gulf; hiatus maxime, hiatus valde deflendus; parenthesis; (interjacence); void c. (absence); incompleteness.

Legality

Legislature; law, code, corpus juris, pandect, charter, enactment, statute, rule; canon; (precept); ordinance, institution, regulation; bylaw, byelaw; decree; (order); ordonnance; standing order; plebiscite; (choice).

Equity, common law; lex, lex nonscripta; law of nations, droit des gens, international law, jus gentium; jus civile; civil law, canon law, crown law, criminal law, statute law, ecclesiastical law, administrative law; lex mercatoria.

Precept

Rule, canon, law, code, corpus juris, lex scripta, act, statute, rubric, stage direction, regulation; form, formula, formulary; technicality; canon law; norm.

Source: adapted from Roget's Thesaurus.

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Crosswords: Canon

English words defined with "canon": Cannonical, Canon of the Mass, canonic, canonical, Canonical Scriptures, Canonicals, Canonicate, Canonicity, canonisation, canonist, canonization, canonize, Canonry ♦ Decretal, Deuterocanonical, Deuterogamy ♦ enigma canon, enigmatic canon, enigmatical canon ♦ Honorary canon ♦ Illuminati, Infinito ♦ Leonine verse ♦ Ordinary of the Mass ♦ prebend, prebendary, Preponderancy, Protocanonical ♦ recuse, Regular canon, Residentiary, riddle canon, rule of thumb ♦ Sacred canon ♦ Uniat Church, Uniate Church. (references)
Specialty definitions using "canon": Bampton Lectures, Bible Statistics, Bishop's Apron, BJC4000 ♦ Canonical Dress ♦ Leonine Verses ♦ Obadiah ♦ Polycletus ♦ Roman de Chevalier de Lyon ♦ WHANGDEPOOTENAWAH. (references)
Non-English Usage: "Canon" is also a word in the following languages with English translations in parentheses.

Dutch (cannon, canon), French (barrel, canion, cannon, canoness, catch, gun, round, spout), Romanian (Canon, catch, dogma, tenet, torment, torture), Spanish (Canon, catch, doctrine, dogma, rule, tenet), Welsh (canon).

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Modern Usage: Canon

DomainUsage

Screenplays

All I know is that this violates every canon of respectable broadcasting (Network; writing credit: Paddy Chayefsky)

Movie/TV Titles

Canon (1964)

Le Canon paisible (1985)

The Canon Operation (1983)

Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Commercial Usage: Canon

DomainTitle

References

  • Canon Aptex Inc.: International Competitive Benchmarks and Financial Gap Analysis (reference)

  • Canon Chemicals Inc.: International Competitive Benchmarks and Financial Gap Analysis (reference)

  • Canon Components, Inc.: International Competitive Benchmarks and Financial Gap Analysis (reference)

  • Canon Copyer Sales Co., Ltd.: International Competitive Benchmarks and Financial Gap Analysis (reference)

  • Canon Electronics Inc.: International Competitive Benchmarks and Financial Gap Analysis (reference)

    (more reference examples)

  

Books

  • Canon Eos Elan Ii/IIE Eos 50/50E: Magic Lantern Guides (Magic Lantern Guide - Classic Camera Series) (reference)

    (more book examples)

  

Periodicals

  

Theater & Movies

  

Music

  

High Tech

Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Image Slideshow: Canon

Photos:
Canon

More pictures...

Illustrations:
Canon

More pictures...

Computer Images:
Canon

More pictures...

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Photo Album: Canon

ThumbnailDescription & CreditThumbnailDescription & Credit

Monsieur, que faites-vous donc? vous bourrez mon mari dans votre canon! / Cham [i.e. Amédée Noé]. Credit: National Library of Medicine.

By what canon of art do we expose these charming creatures to the weather?. Credit: Library of Congress.

Grand canon [i.e. Canyon] of the yellow. Credit: Library of Congress.

Black Canon Colorado River, from camp 8, looking above / T.H. O'Sullivan, photographer. Credit: Library of Congress.

Views in Arizona. Grand Canon, mouth of Cataract Creek, looking down. Credit: Library of Congress.

Three tunnels, Temasopa [sic] Canon, The. Credit: Library of Congress.

Up Temasopa [sic] Canon between the tunnels. Credit: Library of Congress.

Wi-wi-la-kah-ta canon. Old hotel, new bath house, Hotel Minnekahta and Battle Mt. in background. Credit: Library of Congress.

National Cathedral. Copy of portrait of Canon Williams, National Cathedral. Credit: Library of Congress.

Military subjects. Soldiers on horses pulling a canon. Credit: Library of Congress.

Source: pictures compiled by the editor from various references; see picture credits.

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Digital Photo Gallery: Canon
 

"Canon EOS 500" by Philip Jackson
Commentary: "Camera - Canon eos 500, taken for a photography competition editorial."		"Arianne" by Mark Robbins
Commentary: "My daughter at around one year old canon ft, 100mm lens, minimum focusing distance."

Source: photographs selected by the editor, with permission from the photographers.

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Non-Fiction Usage: Canon

SubjectTopicQuote

Business

Japan has a growing presence in the business equipment sector through several suppliers including Ricoh, Minolta, and Canon. (references)

Civil Liberties

Greece

The Government, by virtue of the Orthodox Church's status as the prevailing religion, recognizes de facto its canon law. (references)

Greece

In 1999 the Catholic Church unsuccessfully sought government recognition of its canon law (the official "constitution" of the Church). (references)

Mexico

Valentín Davila Martinez, a journalist with Radio Canon, was reported as "missing" and last seen on August 9 in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua state. (references)

Economic History

Vietnam

In early 2001, Canon of Japan received a license to produce color printers in Hanoi for the export market. (references)

The Holy See

The legal system is based on canon, or ecclesiastical, law; if canon law is not applicable, the laws of the city of Rome apply. (references)

Lebanon

Judicial--secular and religious courts; combination of Ottoman, civil, and canon law; limited judicial review of legislative acts. (references)

Human Rights

Iran

The judicial system has been designed to conform, where possible, to an Islamic canon based on the Koran, Sunna, and other Islamic sources. (references)

Trade

Argentina

Some of the users are Sharp, Maxon, Acropolis, Canon, TDK, JVC, Audinac, Pioneer, Rates, Audio Logic, Zenith, Daewo, Talent, Goldstar, Panashiba, Nashiba, Le Roy, Carandache, Baume & Mercier, Corum, Tag Heuer, Movado, Caterpillar, Valvoline, Komatsu, Cummins, Coleman, John Deere, Home, Litte, Snapper, Asia, Kia, Isuzu, Mazda, Nissan, Case, SKF, Fag Steyr, Armstrong, Stanetex Tile, Multicolor Prem, Abco Haldex, Sigma Paximat, York, Autobombas Ford, GM, American Lafrance, Venus Carpet, Kalpakian Floget, Blue Diamond, Stronger, Yale, Skoda, Cessna, Bayer, Nike, Topper, Avia, Jovi, Canson, Stabilo, La Serenisima, Sancor, Ceres, Goodyear, Eastman, Digitar, Tecno Steel, Dallas, Cristaleria Bohemia, Heidelberg, Polar, Hempel, Crosley, Waltek, Exenel, Printex, Darling, Wega, R.N., Tecno 1, Medtronic, Akroplast, BRD, Lostra 2100 Fume, Care Quilt, Rae Flex, Zwiling, Nippon, Kaijo, Ki, Trinity, Asme, Dupont, Siderar, Sanitron, Band Ai, Alcoa, Samsonite, Daihatsu, Rhone Poulenc, Asics, Etam, Grimoldi, Boating Shoes, Sthil, Subaru, Daewoo, Cadbury de Argentina, Cafes La Virginia, Construcciones Metalurgicas Zanello, Electrolux Argentina, Ilko Argentina, Impsat, Ledesma Mattel Argentina, Multicolor Argentina, Papelera Tucuman, Pecom NEC, Philco Ushuaia, Phillips Argentina, Ralston Purina Argentina, Spazio Casa Simmons de Argentina. (references)

Lexicography

Devil's Dictionary

WHANGDEPOOTENAWAH, n. In the Ojibwa tongue, disaster; an unexpected affliction that strikes hard. Should you ask me whence this laughter, Whence this audible big-smiling, With its labial extension, With its maxillar distortion And its diaphragmic rhythmus Like the billowing of an ocean, Like the shaking of a carpet, I should answer, I should tell you: From the great deeps of the spirit, From the unplummeted abysmus Of the soul this laughter welleth As the fountain, the gug-guggle, Like the river from the canon [sic], To entoken and give warning That my present mood is sunny. Should you ask me further question -- Why the great deeps of the spirit, Why the unplummeted abysmus Of the soule extrudes this laughter, This all audible big-smiling, I should answer, I should tell you With a white heart, tumpitumpy, With a true tongue, honest Injun: William Bryan, he has Caught It, Caught the Whangdepootenawah! Is't the sandhill crane, the shankank, Standing in the marsh, the kneedeep, Standing silent in the kneedeep With his wing-tips crossed behind him And his neck close-reefed before him, With his bill, his william, buried In the down upon his bosom, With his head retracted inly, While his shoulders overlook it? Does the sandhill crane, the shankank, Shiver grayly in the north wind, Wishing he had died when little, As the sparrow, the chipchip, does? No 'tis not the Shankank standing, Standing in the gray and dismal Marsh, the gray and dismal kneedeep. No, 'tis peerless William Bryan Realizing that he's Caught It, Caught the Whangdepootenawah!

Source: compiled by the editor from ICON Group International, Inc.; see credits.

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Usage Frequency: Canon

"Canon" is generally used as a noun (proper) -- approximately 57.26% of the time. "Canon" is used about 881 times out of a sample of 100 million words spoken or written in English. Its rank is based on over 700,000 words used in the English language. Some parts-of-speech are not covered due to the samples used by the British National Corpus. (note: percents less than one-hundredth of one percent have been omitted)
Parts of SpeechPercentUsage per
100 Million Words		Rank in English
Noun (proper)57.26%50411,979
Noun (singular)42.74%37714,506
                    Total100.00%881N/A

Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.

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Name Usage Frequency: Canon

The following table summarizes the usage of "canon" based on a population census conducted in the United States. Ranks and frequencies are based on all names reported and classified.
NameUsage/GenderUsage per 100
million Persons		Rank in USA
CanonLast name1,0008,214
Source: compiled by the editor from several corpora; see credits.

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Usage in Company Names: Canon

CountryNameCountryName
Japan

Canon Aptex Inc.

Switzerland

Canon Schweiz A.G.

 (more examples...)  

Source: compiled by the editor from Icon Group International, Inc.

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Cities: Canon


1. Canon, GA (city, FIPS 12932)
Location: 34.34619 N, 83.11072 W
Population (1990): 737 (340 housing units)
Area: 8.1 sq km (land), 0.0 sq km (water)
Zip Code(s): 30520
Country: USA

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Expressions: Canon

Expressions using "canon": Canon bit ♦ Canon bone ♦ Canon capitular ♦ Canon City ♦ canon law ♦ canon of the mass ♦ Canon residentiary ♦ enigma canon ♦ enigmatic canon ♦ enigmatical canon ♦ Honorary canon ♦ minor canon ♦ regular canon ♦ riddle canon ♦ roar of a canon ♦ sacred canon ♦ secular canon ♦ the canon ♦ white canon. Additional references.

Hyphenated Usage

Beginning with "canon": canon-derived, canon-formation, Canon-williams, Canon-williams-renault.

Ending with "canon": Auto-canon, fellow-canon.

Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Frequency of Internet Keywords: Canon

The following statistics estimate the number of searches per day across the major English-language search engines as identified by various trade publications. Hyperlinks lead to commercial use of the expression at Amazon.com.
 
ExpressionFrequency
per Day		ExpressionFrequency
per Day

canon

12,090

canon powershot s50

554

canon camera

3,140

canon powershot

553

canon digital camera

2,682

canon g2

518

canon printer

2,426

canon lens

483

canon a70

2,076

canon a300

477

canon g3

1,391

canon i950

448

canon s400

1,312

canon scanner

417

canon g5

1,293

canon driver

409

a70 canon powershot

1,041

s45 canon powershot

396

canon s50

992

canon a60

384

canon usa

931

canon powershot a300

381

canon powershot s400

839

canon gl2

369

canon powershot g3

833

canon camcorder

359

canon 10d

785

canon powershot g2

343

canon eos 10d

704

canon s200

327

canon s45

690

i850 canon

284

canon copier

640

canon elph

265

canon s230

597

canon powershot s230

260

canon printer driver

597

canon s30

255

canon g5 powershot

581

canon a40

245
Source: compiled by the editor from various references; see credits.

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Modern Translation: Canon

Language Translations for "canon"; alternative meanings/domain in parentheses.

Albanian

  

Standart (Gage, scantling), Listë E Engjëjve, Ligj I Kishës (canon law), Kriter (criterion, metewand, standard, test, touchstone), Kod (cipher, code, cypher, law book, statute book), Kanun, Germë E Madhe (capital letter), E Drejtë Kishëtare. (various references)

   

Arabic 

  

قانون (law, norm, rule), ‏كاهن مرتل, ‏لائحة بالأسفار, ‏قانون كنسي (canon law), ‏قائمة القديسين, ‏آثار المؤلف, ‏شريعة كنيسية, ‏شريعة (code, dispensation, law, legislation, religious law). (various references)

   

Bulgarian 

  

част От Литургия, Правило, Канонически, Канон. (various references)

   

Chinese 

  

坎农相机公司 (canons), 佳能 , 典 (dictionary). (various references)

   

Czech

  

Kanovník, Kánonní, Kánon (catch). (various references)

   

Danish

  

kirkeret (canon law), kanonskudslyd (bruit de canon, cannon sound), double bruit de canon (double bruit de canon). (various references)

   

Dutch

  

canon (cannon), kerkregel. (various references)

   

Farsi 

  

مجموعه کتب , قانون کلی , قانون گزاری کردن , قانون شرع , حکم (Arbiter, Commandment, Commission, Decree, Doom, Edict, Mandate, Ordinance, Ordonnance, Pardon, Precept, Rule, Sentence, Statute, Warrant, Writ), تصمیم (Avow, Decision, Pluck, Resolution). (various references)

   

Finnish

  

rovasti. (various references)

   

French

  

Critère. (various references)

   

German

  

Stiftsherr. (various references)

   

Greek 

  

ίανόνεσ, ίανόνασ. (