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Republic

Specialty Definition: Republic

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Specialty Definition: Australian republicanism

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Australian republicanism is a movement within Australia to sever ties with the British monarchy and replace it with a republic.

The Current Constitutional Structures

Australia's constitutional structures are quite complicated. The commonwealth as a federated unit is a constitutional monarchy with a non-resident monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, the 'Queen of Australia'. (Queen Elizabeth is, of course, also the Queen of the United Kingdom and several other Commonwealth Realms.) But each state itself is also a constitutional monarchy, with a dual relationship to the Queen - individually (the Queen being represented by a governor) and through the Commonwealth, where she is represented by the Governor-General. The complexity is further complicated by each state having a separate constitution, while the Commonwealth possess a complex mix of a written constitution (the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, 1920) alongside convention, tradition, reserve powers and Letters Patent. (The scale of the complexity is shown in the fact that though the Commonwealth has always had a prime minister, the office doesn't feature in the Constitution Act.)

The Role of the Queen and the Crown

In practice, the monarch has no real power in Australia: the Crown's powers are generally vested in the Governor-General who acts in the name of the Queen frequently but without consulting with her or she having any role in their exercise. Her principal role is formally appointing the Governor-General and state governors; this she does on the advice of the Prime Minister or the relevant state premier. Australian republicans, notably through the Australian Republican Movement have sought to abolish the Crown, governor-generalship and the monarchy, replacing all three by a selected locally resident head of state.

The Move Towards a Republic

The Australian Labor Party first made republicanism its official policy in 1991, with then Prime Minister Bob Hawke describing a republic as inevitable. His successor Paul Keating actively pursued a republican agenda, putting forward plans to prepare a revised constitution to take effect on the centenary of federation: January 1, 2001. The preparation of the proposal by a part-elected, part appointed Constitutional Convention in February 1998 was hurried and (according to critics) bungled. Many republicans claimed that incoming Prime Minister John Howard, in his own words an "unashamed royalist", sabotaged the preparation process deliberately: a claim he indignantly denied.

Arguments For Change

Cultural

The key argument made by virtually all supporters of an Australian republic was (and is) that it is inappropriate for the citizen of a country at the other end of the world to be their head of state. They argued that a foreigner whose main job is as the head of state of the United Kingdom, and spends his or her life there, cannot represent Australia, not to itself, nor to the rest of the world. As Frank Cassidy, a member of the Australian Republican Movement put it in a speech on the issue:

In short, we want a resident for President.

Furthermore, Australia had changed culturally and demographically, from being "British to our bootstraps", as prime minister Sir Robert Menzies once put it, to being increasingly multicultural. For Australians of Italian or Chinese origin, the idea of the British monarch as head of state was absurd, while even for those of British origin, it was an anachronism. Aborigines saw it as a symbol of British imperialism, as did Australians of Irish origin.

Also, it was widely argued that several characteristics of the monarchy were in conflict with modern Australian values. The hereditary nature of the monarchy was said to conflict with Australian egalitarianism and dislike of inherited privilege. The laws of succession were held to be sexist and the links between the monarchy and the church inconsistent with Australia's secular character.

Historical

Australian history had also been marked by a few clashes with the existing constitutional monarchy, notably during the Australian constitutional crisis of 1975 in which the Queen's representative, the Governor General, dismissed Prime Minister Gough Whitlam. This particular incident raised serious questions about the value of maintaining a supposedly "symbolic" office that still possessed many key, and potentially dangerous, political powers.

Constitutional

In a republican Australia, it was proposed that the Governor General and Monarch would be replaced by one office, the President of the Commonwealth of Australia. The President could be appointed by the Australian Parliament to a fixed term. Though he would retain the "emergency" powers of the Governor General, he would now actually have a mandate to use them.

Supporters of a parliamentary appointment model also claimed that, contrary to monarchist views, the stability of Australia's liberal democracy would not be imperiled and would in fact be enhanced by such a change, because the Prime Minister, whilst retaining the ability to sack the (effective) head of State, could not alone choose their replacement and would thus have no incentive to do so. Additionally, wider involvement in the choice would ensure that the backgrounds of the appointees would be more thoroughly scrutinized.

A republic by stealth?

There were already moves to remove references to the monarchy from various institutions. For example, in 1993, references to the Queen were removed from the Oath of Citizenship sworn by naturalised Australians, who would now swear allegiance to the country and its people 'whose democratic beliefs I share and whose laws I shall obey'. The state of Queensland deleted all references to the monarchy from its legislation, with new laws being enacted by its Parliament, not the Queen, and 'binding on the State of Queensland', not the Crown. Barristers in New South Wales were no longer appointed 'Queen's Counsel' (QC), but 'Senior Counsel' (SC), as in republics like Ireland and South Africa. Institutions in Australia could no longer apply to have 'Royal' in their title, and the awarding of British honours to Australian citizens was finally discontinued. Many monarchists condemned these as being moves to a 'republic by stealth'.

The 1999 Referendum

For years, opinion polls had clearly suggested that the majority of the electorate favoured severing ties with the monarchy, but the November 1999 republican referendum was soundly defeated even so. There were two main reasons for this. First, Australians have traditionally been very suspicious of proposed constitutional changes of any kind: only 8 out of 43 referenda since 1909 have been approved by a majority of voters in a majority of states (as they must be to succeed).

In Sir Robert Menzies' words, "to get an affirmative vote from the Australian people on a referendum proposal is one of the labours of Hercules."

The Divisions Among the Electorate

Second, public opinion was not (and still is not) divided in a simple yes/no manner. The major opinion groups were:

• Traditional royalists who held their beliefs largely on sentimental attachment to the monarchy, in part based on associations with the United Kingdom and a personal identification with Elizabeth II and her family. Many were older or from rural rather than urban areas.
• Pragmatic royalists who maintained that, whatever the perceived absurdities of the current system, it had served the country well and it would be foolish to change a practical, working system to one whose workings would be unpredictable.
• Minimal change republicans who aimed to replace the monarch with an appointed Australian head of state, but otherwise maintain the current system as unchanged as possible.
• Moderate change republicans who aimed to replace the monarch with an elected head of state.
• Radical republicans, who saw the minimal change option as purely cosmetic. This was easily the smallest major group, but prominent in the debate.
• The Uncommitted - as in all electorates, a large proportion of the electorate remained unattached to either side. (Uncommitted 'swinging voters' are often the decisive force in shaping referenda results and election outcomes in democracies worldwide.)

Alternative Methods for Selecting a President

• Election
  • by the federal Parliament alone
  • by federal and state Parliaments (as in India)
  • by a popular vote (as in the Republic of Ireland)

• Selection
  • by the Prime Minister
  • by consensus among the Government and Opposition
  • by a constitutional council (known as the McGarvie model, after the former Governor of Victoria)

Different groups within the republican cause expressed views as to which one was preferable. Some were committed to one exclusively.

Why the Referendum was Defeated

On the face of things, with republicans of one form or another in the clear majority, it might have been expected that the republican referendum would pass comfortably. However, few mainstream republicans were wholly agreed about the proposed mechanisms for replacing the monarch with either an appointed head of state (which was widely criticised as being undemocratic), or with an elected head of state (which was widely criticised as moving Australia away from the Westminster System toward an American-style presidential system).

The former model (with an appointed head) was the one endorsed by the constitutional convention and put forward at the referendum. It was broadly supported by both minimal-change and moderate republicans, including almost all Labor and a majority of conservative politicians, and opposed by royalists of both kinds (except to the extent that most voted for it to be the model recommended by the constitutional convention, exactly because they saw it to be the least likely model to succeed), and the radical republicans (who reasoned that a simple cosmetic removal of the monarchy would make more far-reaching and substantial changes impossible).

The 'Yes' side

The "yes" campaign was divided in detail but nevertheless managed to present a fairly united and coherent message, and was notable for unlikely alliances between traditional opponents - former Labor Prime Minister Bob Hawke and former Liberal Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser gave joint statements, for example.

The 'No' side

The "no" campaign was much more divided in its messages, and several times produced the extraordinary spectacle of hard-core conservatives sharing a podium with far left radicals. Some campaigned to 'keep the Crown'. Others argued 'yes to a republic, but not this version'. For all their differences, they were united in their central message; vote no.

Who Voted How

The result of the poll was clear: roughly 55% of the nation voted "no" and in only one territory, the ACT, was there a "yes" majority. This was broadly as expected: the real surprise was the distribution of the votes. As expected, traditionally conservative states and rural areas were strongholds for the monarchy; but wealthy city electorates mostly voted "yes", and blue-ribbon Labor seats in working-class suburbs voted "no".

The outcome was met with angst by the republicans. Some, notably Australian Republican Movement president Malcolm Turnbull, spoke bitterly in the aftermath, blaming Prime Minister Howard in particular for their defeat. Most monarchists were content to accept the victory and keep a low profile. Australians for Constitutional Monarchy leader Kerry Jones, for example, called for citizens to accept it and go forward "as a united nation".

It was left to radical republican leader Phil Cleary to explain the unexpectedly strong "no" vote in the inner suburbs that ultimately tipped the balance: it was not, in Cleary's view, "a vote for a foreign head of state or some crumbling hereditary family. It was a vote for participation in the political system."

The Unsolved Issue

It is widely expected that a further referendum will take place eventually, although public agitation for such a move has faded away in the years since the referendum was defeated. The media have conducted and interpreted a number of opinion polls to suggest that a majority of Australians favour some form of republic. In any case, it appears certain that the debate will not really begin in earnest again until John Howard leaves office.

See also: Republic Advisory Committee, Constitutional law, Australian Constitutional History

External links

• Official Australian Government Hansard Transcripts of the 1998 Constitutional Convention
• The Australian Republican Movement homepage
• Documentation on Australian Constitutional History
• Questions on the Monarchy & Governor-General (from the Australian Republican Movement website)
• Royal Styles and Titles Act
• Res Publica : Australia (an international anti-monarchy Web directory)
• Australians for Constitutional Monarchy Pragmatic royalists
• Monarchist League Traditional royalists
• The McGarvie Model Minimalist republic

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Australian republicanism."

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British republican movement

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Although Britain is a constitutional monarchy, there have been movements since the nineteenth century whose aim is to remove the monarchy and establish a republican system in which the British people elect a ceremonial president to act as head of state.

The most recent movement is led by Republic, the Campaign for an Elected Head of State.

The monarchy is still largely popular, but a sizeable minority of the British public are opposed to it, opinion polls usually show around 20-30%. However, scandals involving the Queen's children, and a decline in respect for traditional institutions, have led to a gradual shift in attitudes over the years. Websites are emerging such as British Republic and The Centre for Citizenship. Nonetheless, it is possible to overemphasise recent trends. After reaching a low point following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, support for the monarchy rebounded during the celebrations for the Golden Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II in 2002. Republicanism was similarly high during the later years of Queen Victoria's reign, when she withdrew from public life following the death of her husband, Prince Albert, only to rebound after her Diamond Jubilee.

The Fabian Society published a report in July 2003 giving a number of recommendations for reform of the monarchy, but they fell short of arguing for its abolition.

Well-known contemporary republicans include Tony Benn, who in 1991 introduced a Commonwealth of Britain Bill in Parliament, Roy Hattersley, journalist and author Claire Rayner and Michael Mansfield, QC.

Objections to the monarchy are often based on what republicans believe is the anachronistic system of choosing a head of state by birth, rather than merit or election.

See also: Commonwealth Realm for a discussion of republicanism in the Queen's other "realms." and Commonwealth of England for the two periods of republican rule in the 17th century.

External Links

• Republic and the local branch, Sussex Republic
• British Republic
• The Centre for Citizenship
• Monarchy Out
• Throne Out

See Also

• UK topics

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "British republican movement."

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Galactic Republic (Star Wars)

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Galactic Republic was the name of the interplanetary government used in the fictional Star Wars universe prior to the establishment of the Galactic Empire.

Warning: Wikipedia contains spoilers.

The Republic, as it was commonly known, had a highly democratic government that was able to sustain itself for over twenty-five thousand years (according to the Expanded Universe).

The main organ of the Republic was a Galactic Senate which featured several appointed senators from each member planet. The senators would then elect a Supreme Chancellor from amongst their ranks who would serve as the Republic's head of government (there seems to be no Head of State) and chief diplomat. Based on the films, we can see that the Senate follows pseudo-parliamentary rules. In Episode One Supreme Chancellor Valorum is forced out of office by the Senate in a Motion of No Confidence.

Regional government in the Republic was in the hands of elected monarchs for each planet, who had the power to appoint Senators to the Senate. There were also small elected assemblies to assist each monarch. The monarchs apparently also had the power to vote in the Senate and introduce legislation. It was Queen Amidala of Naboo in Epsiode One who introduced the non-confidence motion mentioned above.

The Republic's greatest failing was its lack of formal organization. Much of its operation was based on non-binding constitutional conventions, which were often ignored and undermined by corrupt and power-hungry politicians.

The Republic was made up of about a million worlds. The Clone Wars, which occured from 22 BBY to circa 20 BBY, was the first full scale war since the Republic formation(though there were other wars throught the Republic's history such as the Hundred Years Darkness(7,000 BBY), The Great Hyperspace War(5,000 BBY) and The Great Sith War(4,000 BBY).

The Clone Wars occurred when several of the Republic's member Star Systems and organizations united in order to separate from the Republic. This unified organization became known as the Confederacy of Independent Systems. Tensions between the Republic and the Separatists eventually broke, and the Clone Wars began as chronicled in Attack of the Clones.

By the time of The Phantom Menace, the Republic was incredibly corrupt. Senator Palpatine of Naboo became the Supreme Chancellor in 32 BBY. Traditionally, the Chancellor could only have two 4-year terms, but Palpatine stayed in office much longer. He was granted Emergency Power in a motion led by Senator Binks to deal with the Separatist Crisis. Eventually he declared himself Emperor of the galaxy, and the Republic ceased to exist.

Decades later, shortly before the Battle of Yavin, Palpatine dispersed the Imperial Senate and the last remnants of the Galactic Republic were swept away.

After the Galactic Civil War, the Galactic Republic was re-established as the New Republic.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Galactic Republic (Star Wars)."

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Plato's Republic

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Republic is perhaps Plato's best-known dialogue and one of his most influential. In it he explains, through the character of Socrates, the fundamentals of his political philosophy (presented via the conceit of a Utopia), his ethics, and his theory of universals (the 'forms')--among other things. The work is also famous for its literary style: the text is presented as a discussion between Socrates and several other students at a dinner, discussing the nature of justice.

The title "Republic" is derived from the Latin title given to the work by Cicero. Plato's Greek language title, Politeia, described the government of a Polis or city-state. The character Socrates and his friends discuss the nature of an ideal city rather than the nature of the Athenian democracy.

The Republic bears little to no resemblance to the modern political institution that we, in modern times, know as the republic. Plato despises democracy and uses "The Republic" to point out some of its weaker points: susceptibility to demagogues, rule by unfit "barbarians" etc.

Plato believes that the ideal city should be governed by so-called philosopher-kings whom he felt were the only ones with enough wisdom to be trusted to rule. Since Plato regarded the typical individual as being dominated by his appetites and base instincts, he regarded democracy as among the worst forms of government (and only slightly better than tyranny).

External links

• on Bookshelved Wiki
• on Meatball Wiki

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Plato's Republic."

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President of Malta

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Sir Anthony Mamo

The office of the President of Malta, known in Maltese as President ta' Malta, came into being on 13th December 1974, when Malta became a republic within the Commonwealth. The last Governor-General, Sir Anthony Mamo, became the first President of the Republic, and replaced Queen Elizabeth II as head of state. He served as President until 1976.

Like the British monarch, however, the President of Malta is a constitutional head of state, with executive power remaining with the Prime Minister. The President is elected by the unicameral House of Representatives, known in Maltese as Kamra tar-Rappreżentanti. The first woman to hold the post of President was the late Agatha Barbara, a former Labour government minister. The current President is Guido de Marco.

President's Flag

President's Flag 1988-

Until 1988, there was no flag for the President of Malta, who instead used the national flag, but in that year a new flag was introduced, with the coat of arms on a blue field, and a traditional Maltese cross in gold in each corner.

List of Presidents

• 1974-1976: Anthony Mamo (born 1909)
• 1976-1981: Anton Buttigieg (1912-1983)
• 1981-1982: Acting President Albert Hyzler
• 1982-1987: Agatha Barbara (1923-2002)
• 1987-1989: Acting President Paul Xuereb (1923-1994)
• 1989-1994: Censu Tabone (born 1913)
• 1994-1999: Ugo Mifsud Bonnici (born 1932)
• From 1999: Guido de Marco (born 1931)

External link

• President of Malta

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "President of Malta."

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Republic

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

A republic is a form of government (and a state so governed) where a monarch is not the head of state. The word is derived from the Latin res publica, or "public affair", and suggests an ownership and control of the state by the population at large. The concept of democracy, however, is not implicit to that of a republic. The republican form of government may involve a limited democracy, where such rights are available only to a limited group of people, as is the case in many of today's dictatorial or totalitarian states. The term is also broad enough to include many of today's advanced democracies.

The use of a republic goes back at least as far as ancient Akkad. The best known ancient republic was the Roman Republic, which lasted from 509 BC until 44 BC. In the Roman Republic, the principles of annuality (holding office for a term of only one year) and collegiality (holding office with at least two men at the same time) were usually observed.

In modern times, the head of state of a republic is usually formed by only one person, the president, but there are some exceptions such as Switzerland, which has a seven-member council as its head of state, called the Bundesrat, and San Marino, where the position of head of state is shared by two people.

It is rather difficult to draw a precise line between republics and monarchies and there is certainly nothing that says one is necessarily more democratic than the other, (although an elected head of state within a democratic system is generally considered more democratic than a monarchy). Monarchs generally reign for life, and when they die they are succeeded by a relative, either chosen by themselves or determined according to set rules. The presidents of republics, by contrast, are generally elected for a limited term, and their successors are chosen by the body that elected them. These days even non-democratic republics generally claim to be democratic, though the outcome of the election may be assured, and still maintain the ritual of regularly electing their head of state; and frequently in these states heads of states have left office voluntarily (through resignation or retirement) or been forced out (through constitutional means) by other members of the ruling elite. But there are still some exceptions -- each new Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, for instance, was elected by the chief princes of the empire, though over the centuries the custom developed of always electing successive members of a particular family to that office. Perhaps the most significant exception among the forms of today's monarchies is, the oligarchical form of election used in the United Kingdom (described under Privy Council).

Another, older definition of the term uses the term "republic" to describe what is commonly called a representative democracy; it restricts the term "democracy" to refer only to direct democracy. See democracy for further discussion of this term usage and its history. Even this usage does not cover the many republics, past and present, that are not democratic at all (though few modern ones admit their lack of democracy).

Using this older meaning, it is said that the United States is a federal republic, not a democracy. (Although most people, including most Americans, call it a democracy, they are using the modern definition, not the older one referred to here). This usage of the term republic was particularly common around the time of the American Founding Fathers. The authors of the United States Constitution intentionally chose what they called a republic for several reasons. For one, it is impractical to collect votes from every citizen on every political issue. In theory, representatives would be more well-informed and less emotional than the general populace. Furthermore, a republic can be contrived to protect against the "tyranny of the majority." The Federalist Papers outline the idea that pure democracy is actually quite dangerous, because it allows a majority to infringe upon the rights of a minority. By forming what they called a Republic, in which representatives are chosen in many different ways (the President, House, Senate, and state officials are all elected differently), it is more difficult for a majority to control enough of the government to infringe upon a minority

Other examples of republics include Revolutionary England, France, and Germany.

See also republicanism, presidential system, congressional system, British republican movement See Plato's Republic

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republic."

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Republic Aviation Company

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

The Republic Aviation Company was an aircraft manufacturer. Before and during World War II they manufactured such important aircraft as the P-47 Thunderbolt and afterwards the F-84 Thunderjet.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republic Aviation Company."

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Republic of Ireland

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

This article deals with the Republic of Ireland. The island as a whole is dealt with at Ireland; there is also Northern Ireland. The Republic of Ireland is a state which covers approximately five-sixths of the island of Ireland, off the coast of northwest Europe. The remaining sixth of the island of Ireland is known as Northern Ireland and is part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The country's official constitutional name is Éire, and it is commonly called Ireland, a name which is sometimes controversially used as its diplomatic name. In this article, unless otherwise indicated, Ireland refers to the Republic of Ireland.

Éire / Republic of Ireland

(In Detail)
National motto: None
Official languages	Irish, English secondary
Capital	Dublin / Baile Átha Cliath
Largest City	Dublin / Baile Átha Cliath
President	Mary McAleese
Taoiseach	Bertie Ahern, TD
Area  - Total  - % water	Ranked 117th 70,280 km² 2%
Population  - Total (2002)  - Density	Ranked 121st 3,840,838 55/km²
Independence  - Date	Anglo-Irish Treaty December 6, 1921
Currency	Euro¹, Irish euro coins
Time zone	WET (UTC; UTC+1 in summer)
National anthem	Amhrán na bhFiann (the Soldier's Song)
Internet TLD	.IE
Calling Code	353
(1) Prior to 1999: Irish Punt

History

Main articles: History of Ireland, History of the Republic of Ireland

The difference between the island of Ireland (which was once governed as a unit) and the Republic of Ireland (which covers 26 of the 32 counties on the island) is a product of complex constitutional developments in the first half of the twentieth century.

From 1 January 1801 until 6 December 1922 Ireland as one unit was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1919, most Irish MPs elected in the 1918 British general election declined to take their seats in the British House of Commons. Instead they set up a rival extra-legal Irish parliament called Dáil Éireann. This Dáil in January 1919 issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence in the name of a proclaimed Irish Republic. In reality this republic received no international recognition. After a bitterly fought Anglo-Irish War (also known as the Irish War of Independence) representatives of the British government and the Irish republic's Áireacht (cabinet) in 1921 negotiated an Anglo-Irish Treaty created a whole new system of legal Irish self government, known as dominion status.

A new internationally recognised Irish state called the Irish Free State (in the Irish language Saorstát Éireann) was created. The new Free State was in theory to cover the entire island, subject to the proviso that Northern Ireland (which had been created as a separate entity under the Government of Ireland Act, 1920 could opt out and choose to remain part of the United Kingdom, which it duly did. The remaining 26 counties of Ireland became the Irish Free State, a constitutional monarchy over which the British monarch reigned (from 1927 with the title King of Ireland). It had a Governor-General, a bicameral parliament, a cabinet called the Executive Council and a prime minister called the President of the Executive Council. The constitution was called the Irish Free State Constitution.

On the 29 December 1937 a new constitution Bunreacht na hÉireann came into being. It replaced the Irish Free State by a new state called Éire. Though this state's constitutional structures provided for a President of Ireland instead of a king, it was not a republic. The principal key role possessed by a head of state, that of representing the state symbolically internationally remained vested in statute law in the King as an organ. On 1 April 1949 the Republic of Ireland Act declared Éire a republic, with the functions previously given to the King given instead to the President of Ireland.

Though the official name of the state remained Éire, the term Republic of Ireland (officially just the description of the new state), came to be used as its name. While the Republic choses to use the word Ireland to describe itself, particularly in the diplomatic sphere (thus it is always the President of Ireland and the Constitution of Ireland), many states avoid using that term because of the existence of a second Ireland, Northern Ireland, and because the 1937 constitution claimed that the south had jurisdiction over the north. Using the word 'Ireland' was taken as accepting that claim and so caused offence in Northern Ireland. That claim, in what was known as Articles 2 and 3 of the 1937 constitution, was repealed in 1999.

The Irish Free State/Éire remained a member of the British Commonwealth until the declaration of a republic in April 1949. Under Commonwealth rules at the time, declaration of a republic automatically terminated membership of the association. This was before the rules were changed to allow India to become a republic within the Commonweath. Although Ireland ceased to be a member and chose not to re-apply for membership, it retained many of the privileges of Commonwealth membership. To this day, for example, Irish citizens resident in the United Kingdom enjoy all the rights of citizenship, including the right to and stand for office in local or parliamentary elections, serve in the British forces.

Ireland joined the United Nations in 1955 and the European Economic Community (now called the European Union) in 1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against the violent conflict between paramilitary groups in Northern Ireland known as the Troubles. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, known as the Belfast Agreement and approved in 1998 in a vote in both the Republic and Northern Ireland, is currently being implemented.

Politics

Main article: Politics of Ireland

The Republic of Ireland is a republic, with a parliamentary system of government. The President of Ireland (Uachtaráin na hÉireann), who serves as head of state, is elected for a 7-year term and can be re-elected only once. In carrying out certain constitutional powers and functions, the president is aided by the Council of State, an advisory body. The prime minister, the Taoiseach, is appointed by the president on the nomination of parliament. The Taoiseach is normally the leader of the political party, or a coalition, which wins the most seats in the national elections.

The bicameral parliament, the Oireachtas, consists of a Senate, the Seanad Éireann, and a House of Representatives, the Dáil Éireann. The Seanad is composed of 60 members; 11 nominated by the Taoiseach, 6 elected by the national universities, and 43 elected from panels of candidates established on a vocational basis. The Dáil has 166 members, Teachtaí Dála or Deputies, elected to represent multi-seat constituencies under the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote. Under the Irish constitution (Bunreacht na hÉireann), parliamentary elections must be held at least every 7 years, though a lower limit may be set by statute law. The current statutory maximum term is every 5 years.

The Government (Án Rialtas) is constitutionally limited to 15 members. No more than two members of the Government can be selected from the Senate, and the Taoiseach, Tánaiste (deputy prime minister) and Minister for Finance must be members of the Dáil. The current government is made up of a coalition of two parties; Fianna Fáil under Taoiseach Bertie Ahern and the Progressive Democrats under Tánaiste Mary Harney. The main opposition in the current Dáil is made up of Fine Gael and Labour. Smaller parties such as Sinn Féin and the Green Party also have representation in Dáil Éireann.

Counties

Main article: Counties of Ireland

The Republic of Ireland is traditionally described as having 26 counties, which continue to be in use in e.g. a cultural, historical and sporting context. As local governmental units some have been restructured, with County Dublin broken up into four new counties in the 1990s, while County Tipperary has in fact been two separate counties for generations, producing a total of 30 administrative counties:

• County Carlow
• County Cavan
• County Clare
• County Cork
• County Donegal
• County Dublin
  • Dublin City
  • Fingal
  • Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown
  • South County Dublin (Tallaght)
• County Galway
• County Kerry
• County Kildare
• County Kilkenny
• County Laois
• County Leitrim
• County Limerick
• County Longford
• County Louth
• County Mayo
• County Meath
• County Monaghan
• County Offaly
• County Roscommon
• County Sligo
• County Tipperary
  • Tipperary North Riding
  • Tipperary South Riding
• County Waterford
• County Westmeath
• County Wexford
• County Wicklow

Geography

Main article: Geography of Ireland

The island of Ireland extends over 84,421 km² of which five-sixths belong to the Republic, with the remainder constituting Northern Ireland. It is bound to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the northeast by the North Channel. To the east is found the Irish Sea which reconnects to the ocean via the southwest with St. George's Channel and the Celtic Sea. The west-coast of Ireland mostly consists of cliffs, hills and low mountains (the highest point being Carrauntoohil at 1,041 m). The centre of the country is relatively flat farmland, traversed by rivers such as the Shannon and several large lakes or loughs\.

The local temperate climate is modified by the North Atlantic Current and relatively mild. Summers are rarely very hot, but it freezes only occasionally in winter. Precipitation is very common, with up to 275 days with rain in some parts of the country. Chief cities are the capital Dublin on the east coast, Cork in the south, and Galway and Limerick on the west coast (see Towns and cities of the Republic of Ireland).

Economy

Main article: Economy of Ireland

The Republic of Ireland is a small, modern, trade-dependent economy with growth averaging a robust 9% in 1995-2001. Agriculture, once the most important sector, is now dwarfed by industry, which accounts for 38% of GDP, about 80% of exports, and employs 28% of the labour force. Although exports remain the primary engine for Ireland's robust growth, the economy is also benefiting from a rise in consumer spending and recovery in both construction and business investment.

Over the past decade, the Irish government has implemented a series of national economic programs designed to curb inflation, reduce government spending, increase labour force skills, and promote foreign investment. Ireland joined in launching the euro currency system in January 1999 along with 11 other EU nations. This period of high economic growth came to be called the Celtic Tiger. The economy felt the impact of the global economic slowdown in 2001, particularly in the high-tech export sector; the growth rate was cut by nearly half. Growth in 2002 is expected to fall in the 3%-5% range.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Ireland

Most Irish are either of Celtic or English ethnicity. The official languages are Irish (Gaelic), the native Celtic language, and English, which is constitutionally described as a secondary official language. Learning Irish is compulsory in education, but English is by far the predominant language. Public signs are usually bilingual and national media in Irish also exist. People living in predominantly Irish speaking communities (the Gaeltacht) are limited to the low tens of thousands in isolated pockets largely on the western seaboard.

The Republic of Ireland is officially 92% Roman Catholic. However there had been a massive decline in adherence to Roman Catholicism among Irish Catholics. Between 1996 and 2001, regular Mass attendance, already previously in decline, declined from 60% to 48% (it had been 90%+ in 1973), and all but two of its priest-training seminaries have either closed or are expected to close soon. The Church was also hit in the 1990s by a series of sexual scandals and cover-up charges against its hierarchy. In 1995, after an approx. 58-year ban, voters chose to re-legalize divorce in the Republic.

The second largest religion, the Church of Ireland (Anglican), having been in decline for most of the twentieth century, has now experienced an increase in membership, according to the 2002 census, as have other small Christian denominations and Islam. The very small Jewish Congregation in Ireland however has continued to decline in numbers.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Ireland

The island of Ireland has produced the Book of Kells, Guinness, Irish traditional music, and writers such as George Berkeley, James Joyce, George Bernard Shaw, Richard Brinsley Sheridan, Oliver Goldsmith, Oscar Wilde, W.B. Yeats, Samuel Beckett, Séamus Heaney, and others. Shaw, Yeats, Beckett and Heaney are Nobel Literature laureates.

The most famous Irish exports in the late twentieth century included the rock group U2, Sinéad O'Connor, Bob Geldof, The Corrs and the dance show Riverdance. Its most prominent world figure was Mary Robinson, from 1997 to 2002, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.

• Music of Ireland
• Radio Telefís Éireann

Miscellaneous topics

• Communications in Ireland
• Transportation in Ireland
• Military of Ireland
• Foreign relations of Ireland
• Irish diaspora
• Irish mythology
• Irish dance
• List of Irish people
• Notable Irish buildings
• List of Irish cultural institutions
• List of Irish third-level educational institutions
• List of Irish Foreign Ministers
• List of Irish Political Parties
• List of Irish Politicians
• Irish General Election Results (1922-2002)
• Conservation in the Republic of Ireland
• Government of Ireland Act, 1920
• Dáil Constitution (1919 Constitution of the Irish Republic)
• Governor-General of the Irish Free State (representative of the King in the IFS)
• King of Ireland
• Kingdom of Ireland
• Chief Herald of Ireland (1552-present)
• President of the Executive Council
• Ireland Declaration of Independence
• Proclamation of the Republic, 1916
• Anglo-Irish Treaty 1921
• Aosdána (affiliation of artists in Ireland)
• Hibernia
• Éire
• President of Ireland
• Aer Lingus
• Public Holidays in the Republic of Ireland
• St. Patrick's Day
• Bloomsday
• Halloween
• List of the Roman Catholic Dioceses of Ireland
• The Spire of Dublin
• Government of the 1st Dáil
• Government of the 2nd Dáil
• Government of the 3rd Dáil
• Government of the 4th Dáil
• Government of the 5th Dáil
• Government of the 6th Dáil
• Government of the 7th Dáil
• Government of the 8th Dáil
• Government of the 9th Dáil
• Government of the 10th Dáil
• Government of the 11th Dáil
• Government of the 12th Dáil
• Government of the 13th Dáil
• Government of the 14th Dáil
• Government of the 15th Dáil
• Government of the 16th Dáil
• Government of the 17th Dáil
• Government of the 18th Dáil
• Government of the 19th Dáil
• Irish General Election, 1973
  • Government of the 20th Dáil
• Irish General Election, 1977
  • Government of the 21st Dáil
• Irish General Election, 1981
  • Government of the 22nd Dáil
• Irish General Election, 1982 (February)
  • Government of the 23rd Dáil
• Irish General Election, 1982 (November)
  • Government of the 24th Dáil
• Irish General Election, 1987
  • Government of the 25th Dáil
• Irish General Election, 1989
  • Government of the 26th Dáil
• Irish General Election, 1992
  • Government of the 27th Dáil
• Irish General Election, 1997
  • Government of the 28th Dáil
• Irish General Election, 2002
  • Government of the 29th Dáil
• Ireland in the 20th Century

Reference

• Bunreacht na hÉireann (the 1937 constitution)
• The Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922
• J. Anthony Foley and Stephen Lalor (ed), Gill & Macmillan Annotated Constitution of Ireland (Gill & Macmillan, 1995) (ISBN 071712276X)
• FSL Lyons, Ireland Since the Famine
• Alan J. Ward, The Irish Constitutional Tradition: Responsible Government and Modern Ireland 1782-1992 (Irish Academic Press, 1994) (ISBN 0716525283)
• Some of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.

External links

• Information on the Irish State - Governmental portal
• Áras an Uachtaráin - Official presidential site
• Tithe an Oireachtais - Houses of Parliament, official parliamentary site
• Taoiseach - Official prime ministerial site
• Fianna Fáil - Official site
• Fine Gael - Official site
• Labour Party - Official site
• Ireland Story - History, geography and current affairs

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European Union:
Austria  |  Belgium  |  Denmark  |  Finland  |  France  |  Germany  |  Greece | Ireland
Italy  |  Luxembourg  |  Netherlands  |  Portugal  |  Spain  |  United Kingdom

Countries acceding to membership on May 1, 2004:
Cyprus  |  Czech Republic  |  Estonia  |  Hungary  |  Latvia  |  Lithuania  |  Malta  |  Poland  |  Slovakia  |  Slovenia

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Countries of the world  |  Europe  |  Council of Europe

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republic of Ireland."

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Republic, Kansas

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Republic is a city located in Republic County, Kansas. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 161.

Geography

Republic is located at 39°55'25" North, 97°49'21" West (39.923636, -97.822412)¹. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 0.7 km² (0.3 mi²). 0.7 km² (0.3 mi²) of it is land and none of it is covered by water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 161 people, 84 households, and 49 families residing in the city. The population density is 239.1/km² (616.0/mi²). There are 108 housing units at an average density of 160.4/km² (413.2/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 99.38% White, 0.00% African American, 0.62% Native American, 0.00% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.00% from other races, and 0.00% from two or more races. 1.86% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 84 households out of which 20.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 54.8% are married couples living together, 4.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 40.5% are non-families. 38.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 21.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 1.92 and the average family size is 2.50. In the city the population is spread out with 18.0% under the age of 18, 0.0% from 18 to 24, 24.8% from 25 to 44, 29.8% from 45 to 64, and 27.3% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 50 years. For every 100 females there are 96.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 97.0 males. The median income for a household in the city is $27,679, and the median income for a family is $33,750. Males have a median income of $26,250 versus $16,250 for females. The per capita income for the city is $18,399. 9.7% of the population and 8.7% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 31.6% are under the age of 18 and 0.0% are 65 or older.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republic, Kansas."

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Republic, Michigan

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Republic is a town located in Marquette County, Michigan. As of the 2000 census, the town had a total population of 614.

Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 10.1 km² (3.9 mi²). 9.3 km² (3.6 mi²) of it is land and 0.8 km² (0.3 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 7.67% water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 614 people, 276 households, and 187 families residing in the town. The population density is 65.7/km² (170.1/mi²). There are 356 housing units at an average density of 38.1/km² (98.6/mi²). The racial makeup of the town is 98.05% White, 0.00% African American, 1.63% Native American, 0.00% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.00% from other races, and 0.33% from two or more races. 0.00% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 276 households out of which 26.4% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.5% are married couples living together, 10.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 31.9% are non-families. 30.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 17.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.22 and the average family size is 2.67. In the town the population is spread out with 21.2% under the age of 18, 4.9% from 18 to 24, 23.8% from 25 to 44, 25.6% from 45 to 64, and 24.6% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 45 years. For every 100 females there are 90.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.6 males. The median income for a household in the town is $24,545, and the median income for a family is $29,659. Males have a median income of $24,875 versus $18,472 for females. The per capita income for the town is $14,793. 15.1% of the population and 10.7% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 19.1% are under the age of 18 and 16.2% are 65 or older.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republic, Michigan."

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Republic, Missouri

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Republic is a city located in Greene County, Missouri. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 8,438.

Geography

Republic is located at 37°7'18" North, 93°28'17" West (37.121652, -93.471440)¹. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 14.5 km² (5.6 mi²). 14.5 km² (5.6 mi²) of it is land and none of it is covered by water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 8,438 people, 3,148 households, and 2,379 families residing in the city. The population density is 581.8/km² (1,508.1/mi²). There are 3,298 housing units at an average density of 227.4/km² (589.4/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 97.43% White, 0.24% African American, 0.56% Native American, 0.49% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.24% from other races, and 1.03% from two or more races. 1.04% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 3,148 households out of which 41.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 59.7% are married couples living together, 12.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 24.4% are non-families. 20.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 8.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.63 and the average family size is 3.04. In the city the population is spread out with 28.7% under the age of 18, 8.1% from 18 to 24, 32.0% from 25 to 44, 18.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.3% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 88.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 82.1 males. The median income for a household in the city is $34,611, and the median income for a family is $37,622. Males have a median income of $30,849 versus $21,725 for females. The per capita income for the city is $15,212. 6.7% of the population and 5.8% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 7.8% are under the age of 18 and 10.2% are 65 or older.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republic, Missouri."

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Republic, Ohio

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Republic is a village located in Seneca County, Ohio. As of the 2000 census, the village had a total population of 614.

Geography

Republic is located at 41°7'18" North, 83°1'3" West (41.121793, -83.017478)¹. According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 2.2 km² (0.9 mi²). 2.2 km² (0.9 mi²) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 614 people, 223 households, and 165 families residing in the village. The population density is 275.7/km² (711.4/mi²). There are 237 housing units at an average density of 106.4/km² (274.6/mi²). The racial makeup of the village is 99.67% White, 0.00% African American, 0.00% Native American, 0.00% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.33% from other races, and 0.00% from two or more races. 1.79% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 223 households out of which 39.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 58.3% are married couples living together, 10.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 26.0% are non-families. 22.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.72 and the average family size is 3.19. In the village the population is spread out with 29.6% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 19.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 101.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 99.1 males. The median income for a household in the village is $37,813, and the median income for a family is $45,083. Males have a median income of $32,813 versus $20,956 for females. The per capita income for the village is $14,875. 7.6% of the population and 7.5% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 6.9% are under the age of 18 and 3.7% are 65 or older.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republic, Ohio."

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Republic, Pennsylvania

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Republic is a town located in Fayette County, Pennsylvania. As of the 2000 census, the town had a total population of 1,396.

Geography

Republic is located at 39°57'56" North, 79°52'41" West (39.965531, -79.878064)¹. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 1.9 km² (0.7 mi²). 1.9 km² (0.7 mi²) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 1,396 people, 614 households, and 359 families residing in the town. The population density is 728.4/km² (1,887.4/mi²). There are 714 housing units at an average density of 372.5/km² (965.3/mi²). The racial makeup of the town is 90.47% White, 7.02% African American, 0.29% Native American, 0.00% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 0.36% from other races, and 1.86% from two or more races. 0.43% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 614 households out of which 24.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.9% are married couples living together, 15.0% have a female householder with no husband present, and 41.5% are non-families. 37.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 22.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.27 and the average family size is 3.03. In the town the population is spread out with 23.4% under the age of 18, 7.8% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 21.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 40 years. For every 100 females there are 82.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 83.0 males. The median income for a household in the town is $20,598, and the median income for a family is $26,411. Males have a median income of $37,813 versus $19,653 for females. The per capita income for the town is $14,201. 22.9% of the population and 20.4% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 28.4% are under the age of 18 and 14.2% are 65 or older.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republic, Pennsylvania."

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Republic, Washington

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Republic is a city located in Ferry County, Washington. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 954. It is the county seat of Ferry County⁶.

Geography

Republic is located at 48°38'53" North, 118°44'6" West (48.648159, -118.734947)¹. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 4.1 km² (1.6 mi²). 4.1 km² (1.6 mi²) of it is land and 0.63% is water.

Demographics

As of the census¹ of 2000, there are 954 people, 411 households, and 244 families residing in the city. The population density is 233.1/km² (602.9/mi²). There are 500 housing units at an average density of 122.2/km² (316.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 92.56% White, 0.84% African American, 2.73% Native American, 0.21% Asian, 0.10% Pacific Islander, 0.73% from other races, and 2.83% from two or more races. 1.99% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 411 households out of which 31.4% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.0% are married couples living together, 11.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 40.4% are non-families. 36.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 15.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.25 and the average family size is 2.96. In the city the population is spread out with 26.0% under the age of 18, 7.3% from 18 to 24, 24.4% from 25 to 44, 27.9% from 45 to 64, and 14.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 40 years. For every 100 females there are 93.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 88.8 males. The median income for a household in the city is $25,284, and the median income for a family is $30,357. Males have a median income of $28,750 versus $24,286 for females. The per capita income for the city is $14,427. 24.0% of the population and 20.2% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 31.5% are under the age of 18 and 17.6% are 65 or older.

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republic, Washington."

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Republicanism

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

Republicanism is the political theory that holds that the best form of government is a republic as opposed to a monarchy. Unlike proponents of democracy, socialism, or communism, modern republicans rarely argue on the basis of universal principles that a republic is the best form of government in all nations. Rather republicanism is generally a local political movement that argues for the abolition of the monarchy in a particular nation. Because most monarchs in constitutional monarchies have limited power, arguments over republicanism in the late 20th and early 21st century are more often about symbolism than about actual transfers of power.

The term republic most commonly means the system of government in which the head of state is elected for a limited term, as opposed to a constitutional monarchy. Republicanism in this sense is support for the abolition of constitutional monarchies. This sense is particularly important in countries such as Australia, where the abolition of the monarchy is a major political issue and is largely about the nature of the relationship between Australia, the United Kingdom, and Asia; and also countries such as the United Kingdom, where republicanism has never experienced much popular support, but nonetheless has been a significant minority position.

Republican movements have been successful in France, Italy, Greece, Ireland, Ethiopia, China and Russia. In the case of Italy and Greece, the abolition of the monarchy was intended because the monarchy had become discredited for cooperations with Mussolini in the former case, and the Greek generals in the latter.

In the case of China, Russia, and Ethiopia, the overthrow of the monarchy was in the context of a general Marxist revolution.

Spain has been a rare example in which a monarchy has been restored in the 20th century.

Another, older and less commonly used definition of the term, uses the term "republic" to describe what is more commonly called a representative democracy; it restricts the term "democracy" to refer only to direct democracy. See democracy for further discussion of this term usage and its history.

See:

• Australian republicanism
• British republicanism

Republicanism in the United States

According to the older definition of the term, the United States of America is a republic, not a democracy. (Although most people, including most Americans, call it a democracy, they are using the modern definition, not the older one referred to here). This usage of the term republic was particularly common around the time of the American Founding Fathers. The authors of the U.S. Constitution intentionally chose what they called a republic for several reasons. For one, it is impractical to collect votes from every citizen on every political issue. In theory, representatives would be more well-informed and less emotional than the general populace. Furthermore, a republic can be contrived to protect against the "tyranny of the majority." The Federalist Papers outline the idea that pure democracy is actually quite dangerous, because it allows a majority to infringe upon the rights of a minority. By forming what they called a Republic, in which representatives are chosen in many different ways (the President, House, Senate, and state officials are all elected differently), it is more difficult for a majority to control enough of the government to infringe upon a minority.

Republicanism in Northern Ireland

The term "republican" is used in the context of Northern Ireland to refer to nationalist groups such as the Irish Republican Army (IRA), the Irish National Liberation Army the Real IRA and their political wings Sinn Féin, the Irish Republican Socialist Party some of whom support violence as a means of establishing a republic (in the more common sense) encompassing the whole of the island of Ireland. This is in contrast to democratic nationalist groups such as the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). During the decades of The Troubles the democratic nationalist have had more support than the republicans among the minority Catholic electorate. With the recent, albeit shaky, development of a peace process, Sinn Féin's move away from violence has resulted in increased support and in the recent elections they received slightly more votes than the SDLP.

Republicanism can also mean the doctrines of the Republican Party of the United States.

External link

Res Publica: an international anti-monarchy Web directory

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republicanism."

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Republics of the Soviet Union

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

A Soviet Republic was an administrative reigon within the Soviet Union

In its final decades of its existence, the Soviet Union consisted of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics (SSR). They are all independent countries now, only very loosely organized under the heading Commonwealth of Independent States.

The USSR was a highly centralised and authoritarian entity. Under the constitution adopted in 1936 and modified along the way until October 1977, the political foundation of the Soviet Union was formed by the Soviets (Councils) of People's Deputies. These existed at all levels of the administrative hierarchy, with the Soviet Union as a whole under the nominal control of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, located in Moscow. The role of the Soviets in the individual republics and other territories was primarily to put into effect the decisions made by the Supreme Soviet of the USSR.

Soviet Republics Armenian SSR Azerbaijan SSR Byelorussian SSR Estonian SSR Georgian SSR Kazakh SSR Kirghiz SSR Latvian SSR Lithuanian SSR Moldavian SSR Russian SFSR Tadzhik SSR Turkmen SSR Ukrainian SSR Uzbek SSR

Independent Countries Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Estonia Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Latvia Lithuania Moldova Russia Tajikistan Turkmenistan Ukraine Uzbekistan

Sorted by region

Russian SFSR The Baltic Republics Estonian SSR Latvian SSR Lithuanian SSR The West Byelorussian SSR Moldavian SSR Ukrainian SSR

The Caucasus Armenian SSR Azerbaijan SSR Georgian SSR The Central South Kazakh SSR Kirghiz SSR Tadzhik SSR Turkmen SSR Uzbek SSR

Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia were from 1922 until 1936 organized in the Transcaucasian SFSR. A Karelo-Finnish SSR also existed between March 31, 1940, and July 16, 1956.

Russia is by far the largest in area, it spans both Europe and Asia. Of the other 14, Kazakhstan is by far the largest. Russia is also by far the most populated, Ukraine, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan are next, in that order.

See also: Socialist republic

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Republics of the Soviet Union."

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Roman Republic

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

See also Roman Republic (19th century).

The Roman Republic traditionally lasted as a representative government of Rome and its territories from 509 BC until the establishment of the Roman Empire, typically placed at 44 BC or 27 BC.

The city of Rome stands on the Tiber River very near the west coast of Italy. It marked the northernmost border of the territory in which the Latin language was spoken and the southern edge of Etruria, the territory in which the Etruscan language was spoken.

Government Institutions

The Romans observed two principles for their officials: annuality or the observation of a one-year term and collegiality or the holding of the same office by at least two men at the same time. The supreme office of consul, for instance, was always held by two men together, each of whom exercised a power of mutual veto over any actions by the other consul. If the Roman army took the field under the command of the two consuls they alternated days of command. Most other offices were held by more than two men - in the late Republic there were 8 praetors a year and 20 quaestors.

The dictators were an exception to annuality and collegiality, and the censors to annuality. In times of emergency (always military) a single dictator was elected for a term of 6 months to have sole command of the state. On a regular but not annual basis two censors were elected: every five years for a term of 18 months.

The legion formed the backbone of Roman military power.

History of the Republic

The Legendary Founding of Rome - 753 BC

The Romans were very much convinced that their city was founded in the year 753 BC. Rome has often been said to have been started by Romulus and Remus. It was then, tradition had it, ruled by kings for several centuries.

The Foundation of the Republic - 509 BC

Livy's version of the establishment of the Republic states that the last of the Kings of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (superbus, "the proud") had a thoroughly unpleasant son, Sextus Tarquinius, who raped a Roman noblewoman named Lucretia. Lucretia compelled her family to take action by gathering the men, telling them what happened, and killing herself. They then were compelled to avenge her, and led an uprising that drove the royal house, the Tarquins, out of Rome to take refuge in Etruria.

Lucretia's husband Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus and Lucius Junius Brutus gained election as the first two consuls, the chief officers of the new Republic. (The Marcus Junius Brutus who assassinated Julius Caesar claimed descent from this first Brutus).

The early consuls took over the roles of the king with the exception of his high priesthood in the worship of Jupiter Optimus Maximus at the huge temple on the Capitoline Hill. For that duty the Romans elected a Rex sacrorum or "king of holy things." Until the end of the Republic the accusation that a powerful man wanted to make himself king remained a career-shaking charge. (Julius Caesar's assassins claimed after they acted that they were preserving Rome from the re-establishment of an explicit monarchy.)

Patrician and Plebeian

The people of Rome were divided into patricians and plebeians. These words have taken on such different connotations of wealth and ordinariness in modern English that they must be examined in their Roman context. The two classes were ancestral and inherited. One's class was fixed by birth rather than by wealth, and though patricians had in the early Republic monopolized all political offices and probably most of the wealth, there are always signs of wealthy plebeians in the historical record, and many patrician families had lost both wealth and any political influence by the later Republic. One could move from one class to the other by adoption, as did the political operator Clodius, who managed to have himself adopted into a plebeian branch of his own family for political purposes in the late Republic, but this rarely occurred. By the 2nd century BC the classifications had meaning predominantly in religious functions - many priesthoods remained restricted to patricians.

The relationship between the plebeians and the patricians sometimes came under such a strain that the plebeians would secede from the city - they literally left the city, took their families and movable possessions, and set up camp on a hill outside the walls. These secessions happened in 494, 450, and around 287 BC. Their refusal to co-operate any longer with the patricians led to social changes on each occasion. In 494 BC, only about 15 years after the establishment of the Republic, the plebeians for the first time elected two leaders, to whom they gave the title Tribunes. The "plebs" took an oath that they would hold their leaders 'sacrosanct' or inviolate during their terms of office, and that the united plebs would kill anyone who harmed a tribune. The second secession led to further legal definition of their rights and duties and increased the number of tribunes to 10. The final secession gave the vote of the Concilium Plebis or "Council of the Plebeians" the force of law - we call this a "plebiscite".

The end of the Republic - 133-31 BC

Rome's military and diplomatic successes around the Mediterranean resulted in new and unaccustomed pressures on the structures of the old city-state. While factional strife had become a traditional part of Roman life, the stakes were now far higher; a corrupt provincial governor could enrich himself far beyond anything his ancestors imagined possible, and a successful military commander needed only the support of his legions in order to rule vast territories. In addition, small landowners were displaced in favor of large slave-run estates, resulting in large numbers of unemployed urbanites.

Beginning with the agrarian reform of Tiberius Gracchus in 133, the political convulsions became more and more severe, resulting in a series of dictatorships, civil wars, and temporary armed truces during the next century. Much of the political record of this period has survived, and we are able to understand it in some depth.

Gracchus' reform was simply to put more land in the hands of veterans, but ominously, his Senatorial opponents responded to his political machinations by killing him in the street. His younger brother Gaius Gracchus continued the reform efforts, promoted the extension of the franchise to all the cities of Italy, and established the equites as a new force in Roman politics.

A conservative reaction brought power back to the Senate, but they prosecuted the Jugurthine War of 112-105 so poorly, on top of a Slave War in Sicily, and losses at the hands of Germanic tribes, of whom the Cimbri destroyed consular armies at Arausio in 105. Rome was saved by Marius, who held multiple consulships 103-101 while defeating the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae (102) and the Cimbri near Vercellae in the following year. But Marius' military reforms had resulted in an army of proletarian volunteers with no special love for the Senate, and Marius' political allies used the army to threaten the Senate into passing laws reducing the Senate's power. Marius curbed his own allies, and took himself into lesser positions.

Again the Senate proved itself unequal to its role, and failed to deal with the growing discontent of the allies in Italy. After the reformer Livius Drusus was assassinated in 91, almost all of the Italian allies of Rome rebelled in what the Romans called the Social War (allies = Socii, related to the English "associates"). The Romans were only able to end the war in 88 by granting citizenship to all Italians living south of the Po River.

At the same time, Mithridates VI of Pontus overran Bithynia, the latest of several provocations which, this time, forced Rome to act. But Marius and Sulla contended over the command of the army, ending with Sulla marching on Rome with several legions, outlawing his opponents and passing laws favoring the Senate. Sulla then went to Greece, defeated Mithridates at Chaeronea in 86, then returned in 83 to overthrow Marius' ally Cinna. In the following year, Sulla secured appointment as dictator and used the post to reduce the power of the tribunes and the army, although the changes did not long survive his voluntary retirement in 79.

The Spartacist Rebellion - 73 - 71 BC

Large-scale agriculture in the Italian peninsula came to depend on slavery in the latifundia system, and was rocked by a severe slave revolt led by Spartacus that lasted from 73 BC to 71 BC

Spartacus was a Thracian slave, and was trained as a gladiator. In 73 BC he and some of his comrades rebelled at Capua and fled towards mount Vesuvius. The rebel numbers quickly grew to about 70000, comprising mainly Thracian, Gaul and German slaves.

Initially, Spartacus and his second in command Crixus succeeded in defeating several legions sent against them piecemeal. Once a unified command was established under Licinius Crassus who had six legions, the rebellion was crushed in 71 BC. About 10000 slaves fled the battlefield.

The fleeing slaves were intercepted by Pompey who was returning from Spain, and 6000 were crucified along Via Apia from Capua to Rome. Although Crassus did most of the fighting against the rebels, Pompey claimed the victory. This was a source of tension between the two men.

In the final analysis, once the Romans found the right leadership the rebels were quickly defeated. This does not subtract from the achievement Spartacus, who was able to unite a band of slaves into a fighting force capable of defeating several legions.

The whole incident showed the weakness of the Senate and the regime of the late Roman Republic.

The end of the Republic

In the end, the Roman world became too large and complicated for the structures of the republic to cope, and after a period of civil war ended by the Battle of Actium (31 BC), Augustus Caesar established the Roman Empire.

• political bodies of the Republic

Roman Senate

various other Roman assemblies

• political institutions of the Republic

Dictator

Consul

Praetor

Aedile

Quaestor

Tribune

Censor

Pontifex Maximus

Princeps Senatus

Lictor

Cursus honorum

• figures of the Republic

Early Republic

Lucretia

Lucius Junius Brutus

Cincinnatus

Appius Claudius the Censor

Samnite wars 327 - 290 BC

Punic wars

Hannibal - see Carthage

Scipio Africanus Major

Scipio Aemilianus

Cato the Censor

Late Republic

Ahenobarbus family

Julius Caesar

Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus

Gaius Sempronius Gracchus

C. Marius

L. Cornelius Sulla

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus

Marcus Licinius Crassus

Marcus Tullius Cicero

Spartacus

Latin Literature of the Republic

Catullus

Cicero

Plautus

Terence

Ennius

Fabius Pictor

Naevius

References

William G. Sinnigen & Arthur E. R. Boak, A History of Rome to 565 A.D. (Macmillan)

Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Roman Republic."

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Subdivisions of Russia

(From Wikipedia, the free Encyclopedia)

See also Russia#Subdivisions

Russia consists of 7 federal districts, that are divided into 89 "subjects". There are different kinds of "subjects":

• 21 autonomous Republics: They have an own constitution and legislative and are in fact independent states just being represented by Russia in external affairs.
• 1 autonomous oblast
• 10 autonomous district
• 6 regions
• 49 Oblasts
• 2 federal cities

Federal districts

• Northwestern Russia
• Central Russia
• Northern Caucasus
• Volga Federal District
• Urals Federal District
• Siberian Federal District
• Russian Far East

Autonomous republics

Federal district in brackets

• Adygeya (Northern Caucasus)
• Altay (Siberia)
• Bashkortostan (Volga)
• Buryatia (Siberia)
• Chechnia (Northern Caucasus)
• Chuvashia (Volga)
• Khakassia (Siberia)
• Dagestan (Northern Caucasus)
• Ingushetia (Northern Caucasus)
• Kabardino-Balkaria (Northern Caucasus)
• Kalmykia (Northern Caucasus)
• Karachay-Cherkessia (Northern Caucasus)
• Karelia (Northwestern Russia)
• Komi (Northwestern Russia)
• Mariy El (Volga)
• Mordvinia (Volga)
• Northern Ossetia (Northern Caucasus)
• Sakha (Russian Far East)
• Tatarstan (Volga)
• Tuva (Siberia)
• Udmurtia (Volga)

Other Subjects

Northwestern Russian federal district

• Arkhangelsk Oblast
• Vologda Oblast
• Kaliningrad Oblast
• Leningrad Oblast
• Murmansk Oblast
• Novgorod Oblast
• Pskov Oblast
• Saint Petersburg
• Autonomous district of the Nenzes

Central Russian federal district

• Belgorod Oblast
• Bryansk Oblast
• Vladimir Oblast
• Voronesh Oblast
• Ivanovo Oblast
• Kaluga Oblast
• Kostroma Oblast
• Kursk Oblast
• Lipetsk Oblast
• Moscow Oblast
• Oryol Oblast
• Ryasan Oblast
• Smolensk Oblast
• Tambov Oblast
• Tver Oblast
• Tula Oblast
• Yaroslavl Oblast
• Moscow

Northern Caucasus federal district

• Krasnodar Region
• Stavropol Region
• Astrakhan Oblast
• Volgograd Oblast
• Rostov Oblast

Volga federal district

• Kirov Oblast
• Nizhny Novgorod Oblast
• Orenburg Oblast
• Pensa Oblast
• Perm Oblast
• Samara Oblast
• Saratov Oblast
• Ulyanovsk Oblast
• Autonomous district of the Komi-Permyaks

Urals federal district

• Kurgan Oblast
• Sverdlovsk Oblast
• Tyumen Oblast
• Chelyabinsk Oblast
• Autonomous district of the Khants and Manses
• Autonomous district of the Yamal-Nenzes

Siberian federal district

• Altai Region
• Irkutsk Oblast
• Kemerovo Oblast
• Novosibirsk Oblast
• Omsk Oblast
• Tomsk Oblast
• Chita Oblast
• Autonomous district of the Agin Buryats
• Autonomous district of the Taimyrs
• Autonomous district of the Ust-Ordinsk Buryats
• Autonomous district of the Evenks

Russian Far East federal district

• Primorsk Region
• Khabarovsk Region
• Amur Oblast
• Kamchatka Oblast
• Magadan Oblast
• Sakhalin Oblast
• Jewish Autonomous Oblast
• Autonomous district of the Koryaks
• Autonomous district of Chukota

See also: List of capitals of subnational entities

External link

• Map with text in Russian

  Source: adapted by the editor from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under a copyleft GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) from the article "Subdivisions of Russia."

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Abbreviations & Acronyms: Republic

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Synonyms within Context: Republic

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Modern Usage: Republic

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Commercial Usage: Republic